Volume 5, Issue 1

This study argues the necessity for and the benefits of a strategic management approach in current emergency management systems. Strategic management is characterized as a long-term process for developing a continuing commitment to the mission and vision of an organization, nurturing a culture that identifies with and supports the mission and vision, and maintaining a clear focus on the organization's strategic agenda throughout all its decision processes and activities. Recent emergency management practice demands that more strategic approaches and management styles be utilized than before. This study addresses the following benefits of the integration of strategic management into emergency management: forward thinking, professionalization, capacity building, goal identification and achievement, increased public support, increased funding, and greater accountability. This study offers the following suggestions for fostering strategic planning in emergency management practice: centralize planning and decentralize execution, strengthen the intergovernmental response process, build cooperation among public and nonprofit organizations, provide training for operating emergency management strategic planning, and recruit professional emergency managers. Implications for future research are also presented.

A primary goal of terrorism is to instill a sense of fear and vulnerability in a population and to erode its confidence in government and law enforcement agencies to protect citizens against future attacks. In recognition of its importance, the Department of Homeland Security includes public confidence as one of the principal metrics used to assess the consequences of terrorist attacks. Hence, a detailed understanding of the variations in public confidence among individuals, terrorist event types, and as a function of time is critical to developing this metric. In this exploratory study, a questionnaire was designed, tested, and administered to small groups of individuals to measure public confidence in the ability of federal, state, and local governments and their public safety agencies to prevent acts of terrorism. Data was collected from three groups before and after they watched mock television news broadcasts portraying a smallpox attack, a series of suicide bomber attacks, a refinery explosion attack, and cyber intrusions on financial institutions, resulting in identity theft. Our findings are: (a) although the aggregate confidence level is low, there are optimists and pessimists; (b) the subjects are discriminating in interpreting the nature of a terrorist attack, the time horizon, and its impact; (c) confidence recovery after a terrorist event has an incubation period; and (d) the patterns of recovery of confidence of the optimists and the pessimists are different. These findings can affect the strategy and policies to manage public confidence after a terrorist event.

This paper provides a methodology to filter and prioritize critical assets of a large and complex organization: the United States Army (the Army). The Army provides an excellent test bed in which to develop such a risk strategy because it relies heavily on both public and private assets to meet a wide variety of missions throughout the world. The Army has developed its own regulation for asset risk management, Army Regulation (AR) 525-26 [Department of the Army (DoA) 2004], in response to Department of Defense directives. Combining the high-level guidance of AR 525-26 with both qualitative and quantitative tools, the modified Risk Filtering, Ranking, and Management (RFRM) methodology provides prioritized assets to decisionmakers for risk management.

With the enormous growth of offshoring software R&D, a concern has arisen that the U.S. may be taking a national security risk by sourcing its software needs to a global innovation network. Offshoring may increase the possibility that malicious parties access software code to steal information, insert harmful code, or carry out other threats. We investigate whether firms that provide software for U.S. defense and critical infrastructure applications perform R&D offshore. Within a sample of 137 U.S.-based firms that submitted software for "Common Criteria" (CC) certification, we found that more than half offshored at least some of their software R&D to a variety of locations, including India, China, and Russia. Active CC participants, as well as larger firms, offshored more. We also investigate reasons given by IT managers for offshoring; a common refrain is that it does not matter where this software is written.

Observations of traffic inspections at a U.S. land border port of entry in El Paso, TX indicate that the process is highly variable. In a series of 24 half-hour observation periods of ordinary non-commercial traffic, the average inspection duration ranged from 16.6 s to 56.6 s. The proportion of inspections which involved some physical search of the vehicle, as indicated by the inspector leaving the inspection booth, varied from 5% to 56% in different observation periods. In 4 out of 10 cases, the log-mean of inspection duration in simultaneous observations of parallel lanes of traffic differed significantly (p<0.05). This suggests that differences in inspector behavior are responsible for much of the variability of the inspection process. Similar results are found for the SENTRI program. A survey of public perception reveals that a majority of English-language respondents perceive the inspectors to be fair while a majority of Spanish-language respondents (both U.S. and Mexican citizens) perceive the process to be more arbitrary, as they state that fairness "depends on the inspector." Spanish-language respondents are also more likely to report having to submit to additional searches than English-language respondents. A common theme that emerges from the analysis of these two datasets is that efforts to standardize some aspects of inspections, while preserving inspector autonomy, may improve the performance of the process by eliminating variability which organized criminal groups may be able to exploit.

Phishing attackers masquerade as genuine senders and try to steal consumers' personal identity data and financial account credentials. In spite of aggressive efforts, technology companies have had limited success in restricting phishing attacks. Unfortunately the nature of phishing attacks changed over time from passive, such as password guessing and eavesdropping to active attacks, such as employing Trojans to intercept traffic and adopting social engineering techniques. No matter how many authentication techniques we develop, phishers always adapt. However, phishers cannot become part of the recipient's social network without consent. Though they can forge certain fields in an email header, phishers do not have access to the complete header. In this paper, we describe techniques for detecting phishers based on their traffic paths, traffic patterns, and on the receivers' social network. Considering such issues, we based our solution on the trustworthiness of the relays participating in routing the emails. We examine the email's header rather than the content. We designed our classifier to perform the following analyses in four steps: i) DNS-header analysis, ii) Social network analysis, iii) Wantedness analysis, and iv) Proactive classification. We classify phishers into: i) Serial phishers, ii) Recent phishers, iii) Prospective phishers, and iv) Suspects. Finally, our classifier appends an alert level or label to the email's "subject" before adding the email to the inbox.

This study examines the roles of specific state attorneys general in the United States and assesses their degree of involvement in promoting and sustaining homeland security. This paper begins with a general overview of attorneys general, the National Association of Attorneys General (NAAG) and the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (ACIR). Then, this paper provides a section on the contributions that the state attorneys general make to homeland security in the states of New Jersey, New York, and Florida. What comes afterwards is an assessment of the possibility of an increased effort and participation from these state governments to sustain homeland security. This paper ends with a discussion that also offers suggestions for future research.

As homeland security policy makers seek to funnel scarce resources to the most vulnerable areas, geographic impact studies have become ever more crucial since the events of September 11, 2001. In the sense that the Los Angeles and Long Beach ports are among the largest in the world, service interruptions there would have nation-wide economic impacts. Because foreign and domestic imports are in greater volumes than exports, the interruption of imports should be examined with a supply-side MRIO-type model. Hence, a new supply-side National Interstate Economic Model (NIEMO) yields extra information with important political implications – in addition to the previously estimated demand-side results – because both simulations show that terrorist attacks in one state have significant economic impacts in other states. Especially in the U.S. Senate where political power is evenly distributed among the states, the supply-side and demand-side results could help garner nationwide support for prevention measures in specific places, often distant from the states where the measures are taken.

This article examines collaboration and homeland security preparedness in city governments in the United States. This is done through a survey of city managers in cities serving populations of 100,000 residents or greater. Based on a survey of the perceptions of city managers on homeland security preparedness from across the United States, these officials believe that there is high level of collaboration in their cities. The survey responses from city managers indicate that there is the most collaboration occurring in city government and the least with organizations statewide. City managers believe that they have a high capacity to coordinate and control homeland security preparedness; but they believe that there is a low probability of their city actually being a future terrorist target. The most prominent factors that explained homeland security preparedness were a city having a favorable economic and political climate. In a regression model, current homeland security preparedness is explained by the median family income of a city, the gender of the city manager, and the city manager having a graduate degree.

Over the past few years the American Red Cross has been undergoing a massive organizational transformation, particularly in its Disaster Services operations. To facilitate this transformation the Disaster Services Human Resource System has been redesigned to focus on two strategic principles; services delivered to constituents and implementation of the tenets of competency-based management. This article reports the organizational transformation resulting from the redesign of the Disaster Services Human Resource (DSHR) System and the intended impact of the new DSHR System on American Red Cross Disaster Services. Progress in implementing the new DSHR System throughout the American Red Cross is also discussed.

Significant concerns exist over the ability of the healthcare and public health systems to meet the surge demands that would result from an event such as an influenza pandemic. Current guidance for public health planners is largely based on expert opinion and may lack connection to the problems of street-level public health practice. To identify the problems of local planners and prepare a state-level planning template for increasing health care surge capacity that accounted for these issues, a study was conducted of local pandemic planning efforts in thirteen counties, finding that cognitive biases, coordination problems, institutional structures in the healthcare system, and resource shortfalls are significant barriers to preparing and implementing a surge capacity plan. In addition, local planners identify patient demand management through triage and education efforts as a viable means of ensuring adequate capacity, in contrast to guidance proposing an increased supply of care as a primary tool.

In 2001 the United States experienced several anthrax attacks that attracted significant attention from the medical community, policy analysts and many other professionals, but relatively little attention from economists. This paper builds on the work of Hupert et al. (2002) by using an M/G/1 queuing model to analyze the tension between economic cost minimization and the stringency of medical examinations in the aftermath of an anthrax attack. The theoretical analysis displays ambiguous results. Given this outcome, numerical analysis of the aforementioned tension is conducted with two main results. First, for many values of the model parameters that describe the stringency of the examinations, a tension does exist between economic cost minimization and examination stringency. Second, for many values of the parameter that describes the scale of an anthrax attack a tension does not exist between economic cost minimization and examination stringency. Moreover, when medical examiners are charged with the task of making equitable versus ethical tradeoffs in their provision of medical care, the problem of discerning the lower cost examination regime becomes confounded further. It is the goal of this work to extend the literature regarding bioterrorism and medical responses to include an additional goal of economic cost minimization.

In the Second Lebanon War (July 2006), the Hezbollah attacked the civilian population of Israel. The war lasted 34 days and more than 4,000 rockets were fired on the north of the country. The Home Front Command called on the population residing in the north to spend lengthy periods in protected shelters. Throughout the war, the government did not debate the necessity for the evacuation of residents from the area under fire, with a population of about one million. In practice, about 300,000 people evacuated the area, most of them independently or with the assistance of voluntary organizations (NGOs). This paper describes the evacuation behavior during the war, the government's policy in regard to this issue, and proposes generic criteria according to which the necessity for evacuation may be assessed under similar circumstances in the future.

This article presents several policy observations regarding evacuation planning and disaster mitigation in large urban areas. After reviewing the research literature pertaining to disaster evacuations, the article provides background information about and lessons learned from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005 and Hurricane Dean in 2007. The often-erroneous planning assumptions in emergency management are then explored along with a discussion about future policy and management implications. Three themes are identified in this research, including: 1) public officials must anticipate a much broader scope of issues when issuing evacuation requests, 2) they must do more to prepare for disasters than write "fantasy" emergency operations plans, and 3) they must adjust development activities that have a negative impact upon disaster mitigation.

Planning for pets in emergencies is now part of local, state, and federal preparedness efforts as a result of the enactment of the 2006 PETS Act. Yet there is little guidance on how to conduct such planning efforts. This paper provides a procedure for estimating the number and location of pet-owning households. Utilizing behavioral studies of evacuation non-compliance, estimates of the number and location of non-evacuating pet-households are made. The procedures are tested in Horry County, South Carolina and Mercer County, New Jersey. We found that the pet estimation model provided a more detailed (numerically and geographically) estimate than the application of national averages. Furthermore, the two approaches to estimating pet owner evacuation non-compliance yield similar results (roughly within 2% of each other). However, the spatial distribution of these non-compliant households shows considerable variability, suggesting a greater need for animal shelters in some areas of the county than others, especially if the goal is to improve evacuation compliance. The development of such fine-grained tools for estimating pet owning households and likely compliance with evacuation orders is the first step in achieving the planning goals within the 2006 PETS Act. It also highlights where to place emergency animal shelters to maximize evacuation compliance of pet-owning households.

After Hurricane Rita, the need for systematic and quantitative assessments of evacuation planning and operations strategies was recognized. Both contra-flow operation and phased evacuation were put into rigorous analysis through a large-scale regional traffic simulation modeling approach. After extensive data preparation and model developments, the Central Texas Evacuation network (CTE) in Dynamic Urban Systems in Transportation (DynusT) was created. The analysis results are presented and elaborated through relevant measures of effectiveness as well as innovative visualization techniques in this paper. The results show that the contra-flow strategy yields considerable improvements in all evacuation corridors in spite of several hot spots requiring further mitigation. The phased evacuation strategy in conjunction with the contra-flow strategy brings forth further improvements, particularly for the coastal high risk zones.

The field of all-hazards management is beset by a plethora of local, state, and federal statutes and regulations implemented by a wide array of civilian and military agencies at various levels of government. Both in practice and in academia, the emphasis is too often on the differences and tensions between emergency management and homeland security, between civilian and military management authority, and between federal and other levels of government. This article provides an analytic framework for discovering the common constitutional roots among them, by integrating phases in the disaster management cycle with core constitutional functions, to create a "legal GIS system." This matrix can be a useful means for mapping sources of potential conflict and thus identifying areas in need of proactive, cooperatively oriented law reform.

Concerns of a pandemic outbreak of influenza have been at the forefront of the homeland security and emergency management communities for the past several years. Until an actual pandemic occurs, the question of whether responsible agencies and their operational preparations can adequately handle a pandemic that impacts every jurisdiction will remain unanswered. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has taken the lead to handle this threat at the federal level, which includes establishing operational plans and developing training. It also includes developing a template for tabletop exercises, Tabletop Exercise for Pandemic Influenza Preparedness in Local Public Health Agencies, which can serve as a model for every jurisdictional level. The exercise is invaluable for public health planning, but there remains room for improvement: its design neglects some of the broader implications of the planning and coordination required of the first response community.This paper is designed to fit most suitably within emergency management and homeland security curriculum as an educational tool to prepare students for the complex realities of an influenza pandemic and the experience of a tabletop exercise. Beyond the classroom, it brings into focus many pandemic issues that exceed the scope of the DHHS pandemic influenza tabletop, but are of no less importance to public health departments and every other stakeholder agency and organization. Specifically, it discusses the role of exercises in emergency management planning, provides an overview of the present pandemic influenza threat, outlines special planning considerations and assumptions relevant to this threat, and reviews the foundations of existing pandemic influenza planning and response materials. It will also ultimately offer an adapted version of Tabletop Exercises for Pandemic Influenza Preparedness in Local Public Health Agencies that addresses the problematic planning areas specifically for public safety and emergency management professionals and should facilitate pandemic-related problem solving for all public and private organizations in the absence of a precisely tailored industry-specific exercise.

This study was undertaken for three major purposes: first, to provide initial validation data on an assessment tool designed to provide evidence supporting the following two purposes; second, to analyze the lessons learned process from exercise conduct through subsequent organizational action; and third, to investigate the long-term impact of discussion-based exercises associated with improving food safety preparedness. The major hypothesis forming the basis of the investigation was a logic model containing five sets of variables selected from relevant literature on emergency/disaster preparedness, training evaluation, and instructional design. One variable set, Organizational Actions, served as the criterion of interest. The other four variables served as predictor variables; these were: a) Exercises Outcomes; b) Exercise Design Features; c) Organizational and Personal Characteristics, and d) Demographic Characteristics. The target exercises selected for investigation and evaluation were a class of discussion-based activities conducted for various audiences of food safety personnel from government, industry, public health, and academia. The four exercise sessions from which participants were selected had occurred between two years and six months previously. There were two stages of data collection—personal interviews to assure data relevance and an online survey. Fourteen participants were interviewed and 47 complete responses were obtained from the survey. Data analysis provided considerable support for assessment tool validity. First, it would appear that discussion-based exercises can have some positive long-term impact on organizational change, a finding that heretofore, has not been demonstrated in the relevant research literature. Second, empirical evidence was found for the logic model, with almost 60% of the variance in the criterion variable accounted for by the other measures. Third, given that the exercises were designed to promote coordination and collaboration across agencies and industry sectors, it was found that by tailoring the exercise to participant backgrounds and designing activities to promote long-term learning, the potential for cross-organizational action can be increased. Other conclusions highlighted specific recommendations that could improve exercise design.

Considerable existing literature on terrorism contains limited discussions of what terrorists need to know in order to plan their attacks. This article focuses explicitly on terrorist information needs and specifies a list of intelligence requirements for attacks against the transportation infrastructure. This list is part of the modified intelligence preparation of the battlefield (ModIPB) framework, developed based on the traditional U.S. Army doctrine for intelligence preparation of the battlefield, RAND research recommending modifications to IPB, specifically to the urban operating environment, and the so-called "al Qaeda manual."The ModIPB framework identifies four categories of information relevant to targets in the transportation infrastructure, including (1) avenues of approach and ease of access, (2) target features, (3) security (including forces, security measures, and other population groups present), and (4) analysis of threats to the terrorist operation. Each category contains detailed elements and sub-elements.Because this analytic framework can be used for the evaluation of simulated terrorist intelligence collection efforts for consistent and comparable analyses across scenarios and targets we offer it here for its possible utility to other researchers or for those in charge of maintaining or assessing infrastructure security.

The purpose of this paper is two-fold. First, we suggest an analytical framework to study the full economic impacts of hypothetical bio-terrorist attacks on various targets. We particularly emphasize the importance of estimating economic impacts that occur through systems and behavior linkages beyond direct losses. Second, we provide a case study that analyzes the economic impacts of an attack on a major league sports stadium. The estimated loss from the stadium attack ranges from $62 billion to $73 billion. The largest loss comes from the loss of lives, followed by the reduced demand for sports stadium visits. We demonstrate that available off-the-shelf impact models (in this case IMPLAN) can be utilized, via the development of detailed but plausible scenarios grounded in available data and literature.

Poor information flow both within and among the organizations/agencies involved in the preparation for, and management of, disasters is among the principal source of failures whose cost often reaches millions of dollars and thousands of unnecessarily lost lives. Typically, inadequate information distribution is the direct consequence of human error, faulty or non-existing interoperability of information systems, inter-agency conflicts, or political considerations. The paper discusses the advantages of a network-centric approach to disaster management and the associated improvement in handling information/knowledge tasks associated with complex, multi-domain operations. By providing a real time, unfettered flow of factual information and knowledge among all disaster management participants, Network Enabled Capability (NEC) constitutes the essential platform for the development of effective mission priorities and adaptive management in the context of an "All-Hazards" approach. Currently, real-time access to factual, operations-pertinent information and to the relevant supporting data requires a complex, time-consuming effort at all levels of disaster response activity. Most disasters have clearly shown that much of such an effort is unproductive, leads to misleading or conflicting results, and may actually hamper rather than increase operational effectiveness. NEC eliminates such problems.

In this paper, the crucial role of resource management during an emergency situation in a hospital environment is addressed and analyzed. We propose a methodology to help the incident managers allocate their available medical and non-medical staff members to the areas of the hospital undergoing emergency evacuation. We first show that the assumptions of unlimited resource capacity and lack of interaction between these resources may lead to invalid results and plans. We then present an analytical approach to model the dispatching of these limited human resources to the impacted floors. We also formulate a procedure to estimate the evacuation time. Within a reasonable degree of accuracy this estimation methodology can be used instead of a complex simulation model which often takes time to develop and test. The basis for this study is a recent project on simulation and modeling of emergency evacuation in a local hospital.

Humanity is facing the rapid spread of avian flu and the potential severe threat of a future global pandemic flu. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the governments of various countries and regions have proposed plans for managing a pandemic flu. China and the U.S. also issued their own preparation plans in September and November, 2005, respectively. This article asks whether there are vulnerabilities or shortcomings inherent in either preparation plan, and if so, what measures should be taken to improve them. The article first provides a theoretical analysis of the issues of crisis preparation, chiefly from the perspective of a real crisis. Second, it does some crisis analysis of a pandemic flu and proposes preliminary preparation strategies to deal with it. More importantly, it compares the United States and China concerning their crisis preparation strategies, including the process of forming strategies, cognition of risks, choices of goals, basic principles, framework, and implementation. Finally, it concludes by making some suggestions for crisis policy formulation regarding a pandemic flu.

Some researchers have historically seen a potential for applying multi-attribute risk analysis in nuclear emergency management to more effectively address potentially conflicting objectives, stakeholders with different perspectives, and many uncertainties. This approach was expected to ensure that all relevant attributes are considered in decision making; to enhance communication between the stakeholders, including the public; and to provide a method for explicitly including risk analysis in the process. The intent was to develop a decision support tool a priori that provides decision makers with a preplanned, systematic, and transparent approach, ensuring that decisions are made in an effective and timely manner. This research used an expert elicitation methodology for the identification and weighting of model attributes and selects and executes the optimal one for this application. The research results suggest that: (1) there are multi attribute decision making models available for this application, and the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) methodology is the preferred one; (2) attributes to populate the model could be identified and structured in an AHP format; (3) subject matter experts (SMEs) can be identified and are available for the expert elicitation; and (4) the results can be easily understood and implementable a priori.

Review of Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies. Reviewed by Lucien G. Canton, CEM, Emergency Management Consultant, Lucien G. Canton, CEM (LLC), San Francisco CA.

Review of "Understanding Terrorism: Analysis of Sociological and Psychological Aspects; Dr. Renee Garfinkel, reviewer.

This book is a bold, valuable contribution to the little-developed field of how decisions are made--or not made--to invest in mitigation. It has stylistic and methodological flaws that impeded its general usefulness, but it should be widely read. Ultimately, the book highlights the great conflict between private enterprise efficiency and public vulnerability, the key question in funding mitigation for major hazards like earthquakes and terrorism.

Primarily written as an introductory text for emergency management instruction, this publication provides a comprehensive introduction to emergency management preparation, planning, and practice principles.

This compilation of the writings, speeches, letters and other documents of Jihadis, defined by the author as those involved in a struggle to create "a worldwide fundamentalist Islamic state," is presented with general commentary by the author to provide historical and political context. The book is an excellent resource for students of the Jihad, Muslim fundamentalism, and terrorism in general.

The Canine Remote Deployment System (CRDS) is a dog-mounted remote delivery system for patients trapped in rubble when human contact is precluded but access by disaster dogs is possible. The system is capable of deploying items to the trapped individual by placing them in a pouch—called an "underdog"—attached to the release mechanism. This paper describes the device, how it works, how it has been used and how it might be employed in future disasters.

Emergencies often have causes and effects that are global. However, emergencies are also inherently local: They occur in a particular place and point in time. While it is critical for governments and society to better organize emergency management top-down, it is also important to become more aware of local community-level values, planning, involvement, knowledge, and skill. Local communities plan collaboratively for potential emergencies of varying scales.Our discipline of Human-Computer Interaction studies the interaction between people and computers. Researchers in this field consider how information technology affects emergency management. They aim to improve emergency management through the design of useful and novel interfaces to technology. The purpose of our work was to take a broader perspective on emergency management and investigate the models and patterns of emergency-related work practices. In particular, we examined emergency management from a local community perspective. This focus on local communities partly stems from our prior research on community groups and their use of information technology. It is also motivated by the realization that emergencies are local events, which happen in communities.This paper reports on a study of one community's emergency planning activities. Five aspects of community preparedness are discussed: collaborative efforts, local area details, local culture, geographic information, and emergency plans, and a case study provides concrete examples of each. Local community preparedness is complex and gives rise to many collaboration issues. Revealing this complexity, the paper offers some implications for community emergency management technology.

The University of Tennessee, Knoxville has established a masters and PhD in nursing with a concentration in homeland security degree to meet the need of advanced nursing expertise to provide nursing care in mass casualty incidents related to natural disasters, accidental exposure to toxic agents, war and terrorism or other threats to the homeland. Homeland security nurses will prepare and execute comprehensive plans for major public health emergencies. Utilizing Neuman's Systems Model, the nursing process and goals of the Department of Homeland Security are compared and contrasted to form the theoretical and practice base for homeland security nursing. An application of homeland security nursing utilizing Neuman's Systems Model is provided.

This is a brief history of JHSEM, as it approaches its fifth year of publication, and a discussion of some of the metrics for this professional journal.

High profile sporting events in the United States have been identified by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) as potential terrorist targets (Lipton, 2005). However, there has been an identified lack of training and education for key personnel responsible for sport security operations (Cunningham, 2007). Recognizing the demand and need for a specialized area in sport event security management, the University of Southern Mississippi School of Human Performance and Recreation developed an emphasis area in sports event security management as part of the Master of Science in Sport Management program. The sport security emphasis area includes three graduate level courses – 1) introduction to sport security management, 2) risk assessment of sport venues, and 3) sport event emergency response planning. These courses were developed by an interdisciplinary team composed of faculty from the USM School of Human Performance and Recreation, individuals from the Center for Spectator Sports Security Management, a curriculum design specialist, and several professional sport security experts. The goal of the emphasis area is to equip current and future sport and entertainment managers with the specialization skills and knowledge needed to address the challenges of homeland security in the sports industry.