Volume 390, Issue 1

No Abstract available

Glyceryl ether monooxygenase is a tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent membrane-bound enzyme which catalyses the cleavage of lipid ethers into glycerol and the corresponding aldehyde. Despite many different characterisation and purification attempts, so far no gene and primary sequence have been assigned to this enzyme. The seven other tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent enzymes can be divided in the family of aromatic amino acid hydroxylases – comprising phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase and the two tryptophan hydroxylases – and into the three nitric oxide synthases. We tested the influences of different metal ions and metal ion chelators on glyceryl ether monooxygenase, phenylalanine hydroxylase and nitric oxide synthase activity to elucidate the relationship of glyceryl ether monooxygenase to these two families. 1,10-Phenanthroline, an inhibitor of non-heme iron-dependent enzymes, was able to potently block glyceryl ether monooxygenase as well as phenylalanine hydroxylase, but had no effect on inducible nitric oxide synthase. Two tetrahydrobiopterin analogues, N 5 -methyltetrahydrobiopterin and 4-aminotetrahydrobiopterin, had a similar impact on glyceryl ether monooxygenase activity, as has already been shown for phenylalanine hydroxylase. These observations point to a close analogy of the role of tetrahydrobiopterin in glyceryl ether monooxygenase and in aromatic amino acid hydroxylases and suggest that glyceryl ether monooxygenase may require a non-heme iron for catalysis.

Clostridial collagenases are used for a broad spectrum of biotechnological applications and represent prime target candidates for both therapy and diagnosis of clostridial infections. In this study, we biochemically characterized the catalytic domains of three clostridial collagenases, collagenase G (ColG) and H (ColH) from Clostridium histolyticum , and collagenase T (ColT) from C. tetani . All protein samples showed activity against a synthetic peptidic substrate (furylacryloyl-Leu-Gly-Pro-Ala, FALGPA) with ColH showing the highest overall activity and highest substrate affinity. Whereas the K m values of all three enzymes were within the same order of magnitude, the turnover rate k cat of ColG decreased 50- to 150-fold when compared to ColT and ColH. It is noteworthy that the protein N-terminus significantly impacts their substrate affinity and substrate turnover as well as their inhibition profile with 1,10-phenanthroline. These findings were complemented with the discovery of a strictly conserved double-glycine motif, positioned 28 amino acids upstream of the HEXXH zinc binding site, which is critical for enzymatic activity. These observations have consequences with respect to the topology of the N-terminus relative to the active site as well as possible activation mechanisms.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) plays a central role in the development of Alzheimer's disease: AChE inhibition for preventing the characteristic dwindling of acetylcholine levels constitutes the current standard treatment for the disorder. Amongst the diverse risk factors contributing to the degenerative process, high cholesterol causes a reduction in the effectiveness of the otherwise therapeutic inhibitors of AChE. Our biochemical study on the activity of AChE elucidates the effect of amphiphilic molecules on the activity and kinetics of AChE, and sheds light onto the nature of the impact of these amphiphilic molecules on enzyme-inhibitor interactions. Using kinetic studies we discovered that detergents alter the enzymatic activity of AChE through an uncompetitive mechanism. Additional experiments using AChE inhibitors (amphiphilic procaine hydrochloride, hydrophobic tetrabutylammonium bromide) in the absence or presence of detergent further illustrate the detergent-enzyme-solvent interactions. The results contribute to the understanding of the importance of hydrophobic-lipophilic interactions for the correct function of AChE and its inhibitors. We present a model system for the study of lipid-related alterations in the activity of isolated AChE in the central nervous system. This model may also be used to assess and predict the effectiveness of AChE inhibitors, which are traditionally used for the treatment of cognitive impairment, under pathological (high-cholesterol) conditions.

The partial amino acid sequence of the sulfolobal thermoprotein biochemically characterized as poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase-like enzyme overlaps those of DING proteins. This group of proteins, widely occurring in animals, plants and eubacteria, shows a characteristic and highly conserved N-terminus, DINGGGATL. The sequence of the N-terminal region and of the analyzed tryptic peptides of the sulfolobal thermozyme shows a high similarity with most of the DING proteins from databases. This is the first example of a DING protein from a sulfolobal source.

Several components of milk fat globule membranes (MFGMs) have been reported to display beneficial health properties and some of them have been implicated in the defense of newborns against pathogens. These observations prompted us to determine the glycosphingolipid content of MFGMs and their interaction with pathogens. A comparative study with whole milk components was also carried out. Milk fat globules and MFGMs were isolated from milk. Gangliosides and neutral glycosphingolipids were obtained from MFGMs and whole milk and their fatty acid contents were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). MFGMs and whole milk showed similar ganglioside and neutral glycosphingolipid contents, with whole milk having more GM3 and glucosylceramide and less GD3, O -acetyl GD3, O -acetyl GT3, and lactosylceramide. The fatty acid content of gangliosides from both sources showed a similar composition. However, the neutral glycosphingolipid fatty acid content seemed to be quite different. Whole milk had fewer very-long-chain fatty acids (18.1% vs. 46.4% in MFGMs) and more medium-chain and unsaturated C18:1 and C18:2 fatty acids. Milk fat globules, MFGMs, lactosylceramide, and gangliosides GM3 and GD3 were observed to bind enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli strains. Furthermore, bacterial hemagglutination was inhibited by MFGMs and glycosphingolipids.

Metachromatic leukodystrophy is a lysosomal disorder caused by the deficiency of arylsulfatase A (ASA). This leads to the storage of the sphingolipid 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide (sulfatide) in various cell types, such as renal tubular cells. Examination of mannose 6-phosphate receptor (MPR300)-dependent endocytosis revealed that uptake of lysosomal enzymes is more than two-fold increased in sulfatide-storing kidney cells. Expression of MPR300 and its internalization rate is increased in these cells, whereas the recycling rate is decreased. Similar alterations can be found for the transferrin receptor, indicating that sulfatide storage leads to a general alteration of the endocytotic pathway. These data allow calculating that the endosomal pool from which receptors can recycle is 1.4- to 2-fold increased in lipid-storing cells. Immunocytochemistry demonstrates that the MPR300 in lipid-storing cells does not co-localize with accumulated sulfatide, suggesting that the kinetics of internalization and recycling appear to be altered indirectly.

The Bcl-2 protein is one of the key components of biochemical pathways controlling programmed cell death. The function of this protein can be regulated by posttranslational modifications. Phosphorylation of Bcl-2 has been considered to be significantly associated with cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle, and with cell death caused by defects of microtubule dynamics. This study shows that phosphorylation of Bcl-2 can be induced by heavy metals due to activation of the Jun N-terminal kinase pathway that is not linked to the G2/M cell cycle arrest. Furthermore, we demonstrate that hyperphosphorylated Bcl-2 protein is a more potent inhibitor of zinc-induced cell death than its hypophosphorylated mutant form. These data suggest that regulation of Bcl-2 protein function by phosphorylation is an important part of cell responses to stress.

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) is expressed in isoforms of different molecular masses from one mRNA species by alternative start of translation. The higher molecular mass isoforms (FGF-2 21 and 23 ) contain an arginine-rich N-terminus organized in RG-motifs followed by the 18 kDa FGF-2 (FGF-2 18 ) core which is common to all isoforms. Both isoforms localize differentially to the nucleus. Here, we analyzed the nuclear localization of FGF-2 21 . Surprisingly, the lack of one RG-motif in FGF-2 21 resulted in the nucleolar distribution characteristic of FGF-2 18 . We have previously shown that 23 kDa FGF-2 (FGF-2 23 ) interacts specifically with the survival of motoneuron (SMN) protein, an assembly protein for small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles. For this assembly, Sm-proteins methylated by protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5) are required. In our study, we aimed to analyze whether FGF-2 23 is also a substrate for symmetrical methylation by PRMT5. We could confirm that both proteins exist in a common complex. Moreover, PRMT5 methylates FGF-2 23 in vitro , whereas mutated inactive PRMT5 does not. FGF-2 23 is therefore a new substrate of PRMT5. With regard to function, inhibition of methyltransferase activity in HEK293T cells leads to cytoplasmic enrichment of FGF-2, indicating the importance of arginine methylation for shuttling of FGF-2 23 to the nucleus.

Apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (Apoer2) is a multifunctional transport and signaling receptor that regulates the uptake of selenium into the mouse brain and testis through endocytosis of selenoprotein P (Sepp1). Mice deficient in Apoer2 or Sepp1 are infertile, with kinked and hypomotile spermatozoa. They also develop severe neurological defects on a low selenium diet, due to a profound impairment of selenium uptake. Little is known about the function of Apoer2 in the testis beyond its role as a Sepp1 receptor. By contrast, in the brain, Apoer2 is an essential component of the Reelin signaling pathway, which is required for proper neuronal organization and synapse function. Using knock-in mice, we have functionally dissociated the signaling motifs in the Apoer2 cytoplasmic domain from Sepp1 uptake. Selenium concentration of brain and testis was normal in the knock-in mutants, in contrast to Apoer2 knock-outs. Thus, the neurological defects in the signaling impaired knock-in mice are not caused by a selenium uptake defect, but instead are a direct consequence of a disruption of the Reelin signal. Reduced sperm motility was observed in some of the knock-in mice, indicating a novel signaling role for Apoer2 in sperm development and function that is independent of selenium uptake.

Recent research suggests that long-term ablation of gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) receptor signalling can reverse or prevent many of the metabolic abnormalities associated with dietary and genetically induced obesity-diabetes. The present study was designed to assess the sub-chronic effects of passive or active immunisation against GIP in ob/ob mice. Initial acute administration of GIP antibody together with oral glucose in ob/ob mice significantly increased the glycaemic excursion compared to controls ( p <0.05). This was associated with a significant reduction ( p <0.05) in the overall glucose-mediated insulin response. However, sub-chronic passive GIP immunisation was not associated with any changes in body weight, food intake or metabolic control. In contrast, active immunisation against GIP for 56 days in young ob/ob mice resulted in significantly ( p <0.05) reduced circulating plasma glucose concentrations on day 56 compared to controls. There was a tendency for decreased circulating insulin in GIP immunised mice. The glycaemic response to intraperitoneal glucose was correspondingly improved ( p <0.05) in mice immunised against GIP. Glucose-stimulated insulin levels were not significantly different from controls. Furthermore, insulin sensitivity was similar in mice immunised against GIP and respective controls. Overall, the results reveal that active, as opposed to passive, immunisation against GIP improves blood glucose control ob/ob mice.

Bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) using yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) is a widely employed method to study protein-protein interactions in cells. As yet, this technique has not been used in vitro . To evaluate a possible application of BiFC in vitro , we constructed a ‘superfolder split YFP’ system where 15 mutations enhance expression of the fusion proteins in Escherichia coli and enable a native purification due to improved solubility. Here, we present the crystal structure of ‘superfolder YFP’, providing the structural basis for the enhanced folding and stability characteristics. Complementation between the two non-fluorescent YFP fragments fused to HRas and Raf1RBD or to 14-3-3 and PMA2-CT52 resulted in the constitution of the functional fluorophore. The in vivo BiFC with these protein interaction pairs was demonstrated in eukaryotic cell lines as well. Here, we present for the first time BiFC in vitro studies with natively purified superfolder YFP fusion proteins and show the potential and drawbacks of this method for analyzing protein-protein interactions.