Does Gender Parity in Higher Education Respond Asymmetrically to Remittances? Evidence from Morocco
-
Oussama Zennati
and
Jamal Bouoiyour
Abstract
This study examines the dynamic relationship between migrant remittances and gender parity in higher education in Morocco from 1975 to 2023. While existing studies primarily focus on the gendered impact of remittances on primary and secondary education in home countries, the effects on tertiary education remain largely unexplored. Furthermore, these studies often assume a symmetrical impact of remittances, which may not be the case. Using linear ARDL modelling, we demonstrate that remittances have a positive and long-term impact on gender parity in higher education in Morocco. This finding underscores the role of remittances in reducing gender inequality in higher education in Morocco. To explore potential asymmetries, we employed a nonlinear ARDL model, which revealed a short-run asymmetrical impact of remittances on parity in higher education. Our findings are robust to alternative variables and demonstrate the potential of remittances to enhance human development indicators in Morocco. Additionally, remittances serve as an effective tool for achieving sustainable development goals in Morocco.
Funding source: The authors declare that they have not received any funding for the conduct of this article
See Table A1 and Figures A.1–A.4.
Definition of variables used and their sources.
| Variable | Definition | Description | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| parit_sup | The ratio of female to male enrolments in higher education | Girls’ enrolment rate in secondary education compared to boys’ enrolment rate is the gross percentage of girls enrolled in higher education compared to boys. | WDI |
| rem_capi | Ratio of migrants’ remittances per capita | Personal remittances comprise personal transfers and compensation of employees. Personal transfers consist of all current transfers in cash or in kind made or received by resident households to or from non-resident households. Personal transfers thus include all current transfers between resident and non-resident individuals. Compensation of employees refers to the income of border, seasonal, and other short-term workers who are employed in an economy where they are not residents and of residents employed by non-resident entities. Data are the sum of two items defined in the sixth edition of the IMF Balance of Payments Manual: personal transfers and compensation of employees. | WDI |
| Gdp-capi | GDP per capita (current US$) | GDP per capita is gross domestic product divided by midyear population. GDP is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions for the depreciation of fabricated assets or for the depletion and degradation of natural resources. Data are in current U.S. dollars. | WDI |
| gne | Gross national expenditure | Gross national expenditure is the sum of household final consumption expenditure, general government final consumption expenditure, and gross capital formation. | |
| srim_rate | Percentage of female teachers in the primary education workforce | Female teachers as a percentage of total primary teachers include both full-time and part-time teachers. | WDI |
| seco_rate | Female teachers as a percentage of total secondary teachers | Female teachers as a percentage of total secondary teaching staff include full-time and part-time teachers. | WDI |
| democracy | Political development in the country | The POLITY score is computed by subtracting the AUTOCRACY score from the DEMOCRACY score; the resulting unified polity scale ranges | Center for Systemic Peacea |
CUSUM test graph – ARDL model. Source: Authors’ calculation.
Graph of CUSUM of squares test – ARDL model. Source: Authors’ calculation.
CUSUM test graph – NARDL model. Source: Authors’ calculation.
CUSUM of squares test graph – NARDL model. Source: Authors’ calculation.
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