The Evolution of Religious Policy in Contemporary Belarus

1 The Current Religious Landscape in Contemporary Belarus

Belarus, located in Eastern Europe with a territory of 207,600 square kilometers, is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious state. The country has experienced a significant population decline in recent decades. According to data from the Belarusian National Statistics Committee, the total population decreased from 10.24 million in 1993 to 9.156 million as of January 1, 2024 (Belstat 2024). The sharp decline in population has always been one of the major challenges confronting the Belarusian government.

In terms of ethnic composition, Belarus is home to 140 ethnic groups, predominantly Belarusians and Russians, with smaller Ukrainian, Polish, and Jewish communities. Contemporary Belarus conducts a national census every decade (in 1999, 2009 and 2019). According to the latest national census statistics, the Belarusian ethnic majority has steadily consolidated, increasing from 81.2 % in 1999 to 84.9 % in 2019. Conversely, the Russian population declined from 11.4 % to 7.5 % during the same period. Polish, Ukrainian, and Jewish populations also decreased, dropping from 3.9 % to 3.1 %, 2.4 % to 1.7 %, and 0.3 % to 0.1 %, respectively. The Armenian population remained relatively stable with a share of 0.1 % (Belstat 2020).

As for religious denominations, Orthodoxy and Catholicism dominate Belarus, with smaller number of Protestant, Jewish and Muslim communities. A sociological survey conducted by the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus in 2021 revealed that the largest religious sect in Belarus is Orthodox, with 77.5 % of the population identifies as Orthodox, followed by Catholics, who account for 9.9 %, 1.1 % as Protestant, 0.2 % as Jewish, 0.1 % as Muslim and 0.1 % as adherents of other faiths. Additionally, 0.8 % reported uncertain religious affiliation, while 9.6 % identified as atheists (Bezniuk 2021).

According to the statistics of the Commissioner for Religious and Ethnic Affairs of the Republic of Belarus, as of January 1, 2024, 25 religious denominations and 3,592 religious organizations are officially registered in the country, including 173 religious institutions of general confessional significance (religious associations, monasteries, missions, brotherhoods, sisterhoods, spiritual educational institutions) and 3,419 religious communities (CREA 2019). The statistical breakdown of registered religious organizations in Belarus is presented in Table 1.

After gaining independence on August 25, 1991, the Belarusian government recognized the critical role of religion in preserving national cultural heritage and maintaining social stability. It gradually eased restrictions on religious activities, leading to a steady increase in the number of adherents and religious organizations. The growing dynamism of religious engagement is evidenced by official statistics from the Commissioner for Religious and Ethnic Affairs of the Republic of Belarus (CREA 2024b) (Table 2).

The total number of active religious buildings in the Republic of Belarus is 2,871 and 184 are under construction. The total number of clergymen stands at 3,725, including 127 foreign clergymen. Among these, 56 were invited by the Roman Catholic Church of Belarus and 59 by the Belarusian Orthodox Church to conduct religious activities (CREA 2024a).

As the largest and most influential religious organization in the country, the Belarusian Orthodox Church is subordinate to the Moscow Patriarchate. It currently operates 15 dioceses, 1,737 religious communities, 6 religious schools, 36 monasteries, 15 brotherhoods, 9 sisterhoods, and 1 mission. The Church maintains 1,878 Orthodox churches, with 147 additional churches under construction (CREA 2024a).

The Roman Catholic Church in Belarus has 4 dioceses, 500 religious communities, 451 clergy members, 6 religious schools, 11 missions and 9 monasteries. There are 523 Roman Catholic churches nationwide, with 27 currently under construction (CREA 2024a).

Protestant religious organizations in Belarus are represented by 1,038 religious communities, 21 religious associations, 21 missions and 5 religious educational institutions. The largest Protestant groups are the Evangelical Christian Church (526 religious communities) and the Evangelical Baptist Christians Church (282 religious communities) (CREA 2024a).

The Greek Catholic Church in Belarus has 16 religious communities and 4 religious buildings. In addition, there are 34 registered Old Believers communities, with 28 religious buildings available for worship (CREA 2024a).

The three largest Jewish religious associations in Belarus have registered a total of 51 religious communities, of which 7 have autonomous status and 10 religious buildings. In addition, there are 24 Muslim religious communities, 6 mosques and 3 prayer halls in Belarus, notably the Minsk Grand Mosque officially opened on November 11, 2016 (CREA 2024a).

2 Adjustments to Religious Policy in Contemporary Belarus

Since independence, Belarus’ religious policy has evolved through phases of gradual liberalization, normative regulation, and intensified control. The atheist policies during the Soviet period suppressed religious development, while the post-independence religious framework created conditions for its revival. Since the 21st century, through a number of iterative refinements and adjustments, Belarus has established a distinctive religious policy that fosters constructive interaction between religion and society. Reasonable religious policy not only guarantees citizens’ freedom of belief, but also promotes social harmony, cultural diversity and national stability, laying a solid foundation for effective state governance.

3 Impact of Changes In Religious Policy on the Socio-Political Life of Belarus

Religion is a universal social phenomenon that has accompanied the entire course of human development. As a complex social phenomenon, religion unites believers into organized structures with an extensive system of governance. It regulates followers’ behavior through rituals, doctrines and theological teachings. Thus, as a component of society, religion not only influences the conduct and ethics of believers but also affects non-believers connected to them, shaping shared values. This makes religion a vital component of regional, national, and even global civilizations.

Modern changes in the religious policy of Belarus are intertwined with its political transformation, economic restructuring, and social changes. For more than 30 years Belarus has developed a unique model of church-state relations, summarized by President Lukashenko as “respect-understanding-harmony” (Konoga 2025). At the same time, each shift in religious policy has exerted varying degrees of influence on the socio-political life of Belarus.

First, religious revival has reshaped modern Belarusian society, fostering integration of religion into people’s daily life.

In the early Soviet era, when atheism was the state ideology, all religions – including Orthodoxy – were suppressed, leaving minimal social influence. Following Belarus’ independence on August 25, 1991, the country initially retained the USSR’s Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations enacted on October 1, 1990. This law emphasized the principle of equality of all religions and faiths before the law and reaffirmed the secular nature of education (Gorbachev 1990). In contrast to previous legislation, the new law allowed officially registered religious organizations to establish religious schools, study groups and other type of educational activities for children and adults (Gorbachev 1990). It also granted religious organizations legal entity status upon registration and allowed state-owned religious properties to be transferred to them for ownership or private use. Aligning with ideological shifts, Belarus enacted its first post-independence religious law on December 17, 1992.

Changes in the political system altered the status of religion and religious organizations in national and social life, triggering unprecedented structural transformations in the religious sphere. Key manifestations of these changes are as follows: (1) A significant increase in the number of adherents. Between 1994 and 1998, the proportion of believers increased from 33 % to 47–49 % (42–48 % in urban, 56 % in rural areas), compared to just 16 % (urban areas) and 39.6 % (rural areas) in the 1960s (Novikova 2001). (2) A surge in the number of religious organizations. According to the statistics data of the Commissioner for Religious and Ethnic Affairs of the Republic of Belarus, the number of registered religious organizations grew from 1,092 in 1991 to 2,009 by 1996, stabilizing after 2000. Overall, religion has become a defining feature of Belarusian societal life.

Second, the institutionalization of religious policy and harmonious church-state relations bolster state authority and social stability.

The enduring close ties between the secular state and officially separated religious institutions have fostered tolerance, harmony, and mutual understanding among followers of different faiths, while reinforcing the stability of Belarusian governance and ethno-religious cohesion. When church-state relations are harmonious, religious groups can align with state policies under government guidance, offering spiritual support to secular authority and ensuring its stable, sustained operation. Entering the new century, the Belarusian government granted religious organizations certain privileges and freedoms to unify societal spiritual spaces and shape new ideologies. For instance, the 2002 revised Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations guaranteed citizens’ religious freedoms while ensuring regulated activities within legal frameworks. Belarusian leaders regularly attend religious ceremonies, address church leaders and congregants, and provide material and financial support for restoring, constructing, and renovating churches and monasteries. Annually on January 7, President Lukashenko and the Patriarch jointly present the Belarusian Spiritual Revival Award to cultural figures and clergy.

For decades, the Orthodox Church, alongside other denominations, has actively engaged in social welfare, playing pivotal roles in charity, education, healthcare, and other critical areas to promote stability and national unity. The amicable relations among religious groups and their shared value systems have provided fertile ground for political stability and prosperity, underpinning Lukashenko’s seven consecutive presidential victories. For example, during the 2020 political crisis, four major religious confessions in Belarus (Orthodox, Catholic, Muslim, and Jewish) jointly issued a statement calling for peace, forgiveness, reconciliation, and rebuilding a shared homeland (Sputnik 2020). Furthermore, the successful integration of diverse religious and cultural traditions has enriched Belarusian national identity and underscored the spiritual importance of dialogue and cooperation. On February 10, 2025, President Lukashenko remarked during a meeting with religious representatives: “In modern Belarusian history, there has never been discord or persecution based on religion, ethnicity, or race. All religious confessions coexist in mutual respect, peace, and harmony. The coexistence of Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and other faiths – whose principles align with Belarusian societal values – has united and strengthened our nation ” (Kononovich 2025).

At the same time, the role of the Orthodox Church in strengthening the national cohesion and state identity of Belarus continues to grow. Historically, Orthodoxy has held pivotal significance in shaping Belarusian culture, state formation, national ethos, and political and economic development. Official records indicate that Orthodoxy spread through trade relations and military contacts with Byzantium and Scandinavia even before the Baptism of Rus. Officially introduced to the Principality of Polotsk in 992 right after the Baptism of Rus, Orthodoxy endured centuries of Catholic challenges, fluctuating between prosperity and decline, yet emerged as Belarus’ spiritual anchor. The 1,596 Union of Brest established the Uniate Church, converting some Belarusians to Uniates (also known as Eastern Catholicism), while others embraced Roman Catholicism. However, the overwhelming majority of Belarusians retained the traditional Orthodox faith. Belarusian spiritual values, shaped by the influence of East Slavic thought, combine Slavic collectivism, Orthodox sobornost, Catholic heroism, Protestant personal restraint, and the compromise of Uniatism. The Orthodox Church views the maintenance of national stability and moral integrity as its mission, securing its role in the ethical sphere. As a branch of Christianity, Orthodoxy inherits the mission of universal salvation and moral stewardship (Ma 2002). Thus, during crises the Orthodox Church consistently advocates peace and stability, showcasing its unique socio-moral function. President Lukashenko, commemorating the 1025th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus stated: “In choosing its path, the Belarusian people rely on the humanistic values of Christianity” (Yelizarov 2016, 24). Consequently, the Belarusian Orthodox Church will continue to amplify its role in fostering national identity and unity.

Third, adjustments to religious policy have driven shifts in church-state relations.

On one hand, President Lukashenko emphasizes the Orthodox Church as the nation’s core pillar and regarded it as an important force in the ideology of the country. Religious organizations are permitted to establish legal entities or branches to provide social services for vulnerable groups, reflecting the government’s effort to redefine religion’s societal role by encouraging greater participation in public initiatives and expanding support systems. This shift may strengthen ties among religious organizations and society while improving service quality. On the other hand, the revised Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations explicitly bans religious organizations from political or partisan activities, reinforcing the separation of church and state. This amendment aims to curb religious influence over political decision-making and national direction. However, stricter oversight risks limiting religious freedom, fueling discontent among faith communities and drawing Western criticism of Belarus’ human rights record. The ban on political engagement may also alienate religious leaders, creating tensions between some groups and the state. Balancing state-church dynamics through innovative governance and harnessing religion’s role in shaping national identity while preventing its politicization remains one of the critical challenges for Lukashenko’s administration.

Fourth, the revival of Orthodoxy advances process of Russia-Belarus integration. Russia-Belarus integration is rooted in deep historical ties and contemporary imperatives. The two nations signed the Treaty on the Creation of the Union State on December 8, 1999, establishing a confederation while retaining sovereignty. Integration accelerated after the 2020 political crisis and 2022 Russia-Ukraine conflict. On January 29, 2024, the Union State’s Supreme State Council convened in St. Petersburg, adopting a new three-year decree to deepen cooperation in industry, agriculture, energy, logistics, and information technology, alongside agreements on science, infrastructure, culture, and media. On December 6, 2024, they signed the Union State Security Treaty and adopted the Security Concept, formalizing mutual defense obligations. Practice shows that the “fraternal” friendship of the two countries has withstood serious tests. One of the most effective ways for Russia and Belarus to overcome the current challenges is comprehensive integration and deepening cooperation.

From the perspective of religious and cultural exchange, Russia and Belarus share a profound Orthodox traditional heritage, Orthodoxy occupies an important place in the religious life of both countries. Metropolitan of Minsk and Zaslavl, Patriarchal Exarch of All Belarus Veniamin believes that while economic and cultural ties unify the peoples, solidarity grounded in shared faith is “stronger and more enduring” (BELTA 2023). Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and All Russia, in his letter to President of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko, emphasized that centuries of friendship between the peoples of Russia and Belarus rest on shared spiritual and cultural values, with traditional morality underpinning societal vitality and mutual understanding (Sputnik 2023). As the Belarusian Orthodox Church remains subordinated to the Moscow Patriarchate – with its leaders appointed by the Russian Orthodox Church – it increasingly serves as a spiritual anchor for national unity, and will play its spiritual leading role in the further integration of Russia and Belarus. Lukashenko has described the Moscow Patriarchate as a stronghold of centuries-old Christian traditions, universal human values and the invaluable cultural heritage of the Slavic people (RIA Novosti 2023).

4 Conclusions

The contemporary religious landscape in Belarus is a product of historical and current forces. Over three decades of evolution, Belarusian religious policy has matured from post-independence liberalization to orderly regulation in the early 21st century, followed by post-2020 presidential election adjustments and tightened oversight. These policy shifts reflect sociopolitical recalibration, a rebalancing of state-church dynamics, and, fundamentally, the mutual adaptation of nation-building and ideology. History demonstrates that policy evolution consistently serves political stability and national interests.

In the future, the religious policy of Belarus will probably oscillate between two models: religion as a guardian of traditional values and as a participant of modern governance. However, its key goal – to maintain the stability of power – will remain unchanged. The transformative measures enacted in Belarus’ religious sphere will profoundly shape the nation’s social fabric, influencing its political, cultural, and religious life – and even its cultural positioning within Eurasia’s geopolitical landscape – with enduring consequences.