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Lumping and splitting: Toward a classification of mineral natural kinds

  • Robert M. Hazen ORCID logo , Shaunna M. Morrison , Sergey V. Krivovichev and Robert T. Downs
Published/Copyright: July 2, 2022
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American Mineralogist
From the journal American Mineralogist Volume 107 Issue 7

Abstract

How does one best subdivide nature into kinds? All classification systems require rules for lumping similar objects into the same category, while splitting differing objects into separate categories. Mineralogical classification systems are no exception. Our work in placing mineral species within their evolutionary contexts necessitates this lumping and splitting because we classify “mineral natural kinds” based on unique combinations of formational environments and continuous temperature-pressure-composition phase space. Consequently, we lump two minerals into a single natural kind only if they: (1) are part of a continuous solid solution; (2) are isostructural or members of a homologous series; and (3) form by the same process. A systematic survey based on these criteria suggests that 2310 (~41%) of 5659 IMA-approved mineral species can be lumped with one or more other mineral species, corresponding to 667 “root mineral kinds,” of which 353 lump pairs of mineral species, while 129 lump three species. Eight mineral groups, including cancrinite, eudialyte, hornblende, jahnsite, labuntsovite, satorite, tetradymite, and tourmaline, are represented by 20 or more lumped IMA-approved mineral species. A list of 5659 IMA-approved mineral species corresponds to 4016 root mineral kinds according to these lumping criteria.

The evolutionary system of mineral classification assigns an IMA-approved mineral species to two or more mineral natural kinds under either of two splitting criteria: (1) if it forms in two or more distinct paragenetic environments, or (2) if cluster analysis of the attributes of numerous specimens reveals more than one discrete combination of chemical and physical attributes. A total of 2310 IMA-approved species are known to form by two or more paragenetic processes and thus correspond to multiple mineral natural kinds; however, adequate data resources are not yet in hand to perform cluster analysis on more than a handful of mineral species.

We find that 1623 IMA-approved species (~29%) correspond exactly to mineral natural kinds; i.e., they are known from only one paragenetic environment and are not lumped with another species in our evolutionary classification. Greater complexity is associated with 587 IMA-approved species that are both lumped with one or more other species and occur in two or more paragenetic environments. In these instances, identification of mineral natural kinds may involve both lumping and splitting of the corresponding IMA-approved species on the basis of multiple criteria.

Based on the numbers of root mineral kinds, their known varied modes of formation, and predictions of minerals that occur on Earth but are as yet undiscovered and described, we estimate that Earth holds more than 10 000 mineral natural kinds.

Keywords: Philosophy of mineralogy; classification; cluster analysis; natural kinds; IMA-CNMNC; mineral species; mineral archetypes

Funding statement: This publication is a contribution to the 4D Initiative and the Deep-time Digital Earth (DDE) program. Studies of mineral evolution and mineral ecology have been supported by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the W.M. Keck Foundation, the John Templeton Foundation, NASA Astrobiology Institute (Cycle 8) ENIGMA: Evolution of Nanomachines in Geospheres and 329 Microbial Ancestors (80NSSC18M0093), a private foundation, and the Carnegie Institution for Science. Any opinions, findings, or recommendations expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Acknowledgments

This work would not have been possible without the publication of authoritative multi-volume references, especially Rock-Forming Minerals (Deer et al. 1982–2013) and The Handbook of Mineralogy (Anthony et al. 1990–2003), as well as ongoing efforts to develop and expand comprehensive open-access mineral data resources, especially by Jolyon Ralph, founder of mindat.org, and Robert T. Downs, founder of rruff. info.

We are deeply grateful to Andrew Christy, Frank Hawthorne, Daniel Hummer, Raquel Alonso Perez, and Michael Walter, who provided detailed, thoughtful, and constructive reviews that significantly improved the manuscript. We are also grateful to Paul Falkowski, George Harlow, Peter Heaney, Jeffrey Post, Simone Runyon, Steven Shirey, and Nathan Yee for thoughtful discussions and comments.

  1. Manuscript handled by Simon Redfern

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Received: 2021-04-19
Accepted: 2021-08-03
Published Online: 2022-07-02
Published in Print: 2022-07-26

© 2022 Mineralogical Society of America

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Highlights and Breakthroughs
  2. Mineral evolution heralds a new era for mineralogy
  3. MSA Review
  4. Pauling’s rules for oxide-based minerals: A re-examination based on quantum mechanical constraints and modern applications of bond-valence theory to Earth materials
  5. A cotunnite-type new high-pressure phase of Fe2S
  6. Density determination of liquid iron-nickel-sulfur at high pressure
  7. On the paragenetic modes of minerals: A mineral evolution perspective
  8. Lumping and splitting: Toward a classification of mineral natural kinds
  9. Thermal expansion of minerals in the amphibole supergroup
  10. A multi-faceted experimental study on the dynamic behavior of MgSiO3 glass in the Earth’s deep interior
  11. Origin of β-cristobalite in Libyan Desert Glass: The hottest naturally occurring silica polymorph?
  12. Time-resolved Raman and luminescence spectroscopy of synthetic REE-doped hydroxylapatites and natural apatites
  13. Reexamination of the structure of opal-A: A combined study of synchrotron X-ray diffraction and pair distribution function analysis
  14. A first-principles study of water in wadsleyite and ringwoodite: Implication for the 520 km discontinuity
  15. Inclusions in calcite phantom crystals suggest role of clay minerals in dolomite formation
  16. Crystal-chemical reinvestigation of probertite, CaNa[B5O7(OH)4]·3H2O, a mineral commodity of boron
  17. Crystal structure determination of orthorhombic variscite2O and its derivative AlPO4 structure at high temperature
  18. Transformation of Fe-bearing minerals from Dongsheng sandstone-type uranium deposit, Ordos Basin, north-central China: Implications for ore genesis
  19. Vaterite in a decrepitated diamond-bearing inclusion in zircon from a stromatic migmatite in the Chinese Sulu ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt
  20. Oxygen diffusion in garnet: Experimental calibration and implications for timescales of metamorphic processes and retention of primary O isotopic signatures
  21. Oxidation state of iron and Fe-Mg partitioning between olivine and basaltic martian melts
https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2022-8105
Keywords for this article
Philosophy of mineralogy; classification; cluster analysis; natural kinds; IMA-CNMNC; mineral species; mineral archetypes

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Highlights and Breakthroughs
  2. Mineral evolution heralds a new era for mineralogy
  3. MSA Review
  4. Pauling’s rules for oxide-based minerals: A re-examination based on quantum mechanical constraints and modern applications of bond-valence theory to Earth materials
  5. A cotunnite-type new high-pressure phase of Fe2S
  6. Density determination of liquid iron-nickel-sulfur at high pressure
  7. On the paragenetic modes of minerals: A mineral evolution perspective
  8. Lumping and splitting: Toward a classification of mineral natural kinds
  9. Thermal expansion of minerals in the amphibole supergroup
  10. A multi-faceted experimental study on the dynamic behavior of MgSiO3 glass in the Earth’s deep interior
  11. Origin of β-cristobalite in Libyan Desert Glass: The hottest naturally occurring silica polymorph?
  12. Time-resolved Raman and luminescence spectroscopy of synthetic REE-doped hydroxylapatites and natural apatites
  13. Reexamination of the structure of opal-A: A combined study of synchrotron X-ray diffraction and pair distribution function analysis
  14. A first-principles study of water in wadsleyite and ringwoodite: Implication for the 520 km discontinuity
  15. Inclusions in calcite phantom crystals suggest role of clay minerals in dolomite formation
  16. Crystal-chemical reinvestigation of probertite, CaNa[B5O7(OH)4]·3H2O, a mineral commodity of boron
  17. Crystal structure determination of orthorhombic variscite2O and its derivative AlPO4 structure at high temperature
  18. Transformation of Fe-bearing minerals from Dongsheng sandstone-type uranium deposit, Ordos Basin, north-central China: Implications for ore genesis
  19. Vaterite in a decrepitated diamond-bearing inclusion in zircon from a stromatic migmatite in the Chinese Sulu ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt
  20. Oxygen diffusion in garnet: Experimental calibration and implications for timescales of metamorphic processes and retention of primary O isotopic signatures
  21. Oxidation state of iron and Fe-Mg partitioning between olivine and basaltic martian melts
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