Three Decades of Religious Vote in Europe

Guillermo Cordero

doi:10.1515/wps-2017-0001

Article

Three Decades of Religious Vote in Europe

Published/Copyright: April 28, 2017

Published by

Become an author with De Gruyter Brill

Author Information Explore this Subject

From the journal World Political Science Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

The social sciences have often claimed the end of religiosity as one explanation for electoral behaviour in Europe. Nevertheless, left and right parties still incorporate religious and moral issues on the agenda in order to distance themselves from their opponents. This article undertakes a comparative study of 34 European democracies and examines the extent to which religious voting has diminished since the eighties. Results point to a sharp decline in the levels of religious vote until the nineties, followed by a revitalization since that time in a third of the countries included in the sample. The analysis also highlights the important role played by the political elite in activating the religious vote.

Keywords: electoral behaviour; europe; religiosity; religious voting

Acknowledgments

Asociacion Espanola de Ciencia Politica y de la Administracion (AECPA).

Appendix

Table A.1:

Country-Level Characteristics.

	Economic polarization^a	Moral polarization^a	Main religious denomination^b
Austria	0.9	9.1	Catholic
Belgium	12.9	11.4	Catholic
Bulgaria	13.6	9.6	Orthodox
Croatia	7.6	8.4	Catholic
Czech Republic	19.4	5.9	Catholic
Denmark	14.4	9.6	Protestant
Estonia	3.9	7.6	Mixed
Finland	18.5	7.3	Protestant
France	14.8	8.1	Catholic
East Germany	–	–	Protestant
West Germany	12.1	10.8	Mixed
Great Britain	9.8	4.1	Mixed
Greece	12.9	7.5	Orthodox
Hungary	9.1	5.3	Catholic
Iceland	17.1	1.7	Protestant
Ireland	11.7	9.9	Catholic
Italy	31.3	9.4	Catholic
Latvia	5.6	8.6	Mixed
Lithuania	6.6	9	Catholic
Macedonia	8.1	10	Orthodox
Malta	16.2	10	Catholic
Moldova	8.1	4.5	Orthodox
Montenegro	3.6	10	Orthodox
Netherlands	10	9.3	Mixed
Northern Ireland	–	–	Mixed
Norway	26.4	8.5	Protestant
Poland	6.5	11.8	Catholic
Portugal	8.5	17.4	Catholic
Romania	8.8	6	Orthodox
Russia	4.4	8.3	Orthodox
Serbia	9	9.9	Orthodox
Slovak Republic	21.2	10.4	Catholic
Slovenia	9	14	Catholic
Spain	13.9	10.4	Catholic
Sweden	20.9	8	Protestant
Switzerland	33.3	16.2	Mixed
Ukraine	8.1	4.6	Orthodox

^aSource: Party Manifestos Project. See Laver and Budge (1992) for more details.
^bSource: EVS (2008).

Table A.2:

Linear Regression on the Ideology of the Party Voted (with Control Variables), by Country, 2008.

	West Germany	East Germany	Austria	Belgium	Bulgaria	Croatia	Denmark	Slovak Republic	Slovenia	Spain	Estonia	Finland
Sociodemographic variables
Gender (ref: man)	0.15	0.40*	0.49**	0.35**	0.22	0.38**	0.65**	−0.13	0.03	0.37**	0.06	0.21
Age	0.01**	−0.01**	0.01**	0.01	−0.02**	−0.01*	0.00	−0.01**	0.00**	0.00	0.00	0.00
Education	0.00	−0.03*	−0.03*	−0.01	0.03	−0.10*	−0.04**	0.03	0.00	0.03**	0.04*	0.08**
Religious practice
Weekly church attendance	−0.35	0.30	0.12	−0.01	0.49	0.37*	0.45	0.20	0.37**	0.16	0.32	−0.14
Praying frequency	0.09	0.24	−0.32	−0.30*	−0.45*	−0.08	−0.06	0.49*	−0.1	−0.27*	0.48**	−0.01
Religious denomination
Catholic	0.63**	0.92	0.38	0.36*	0.75**	0.45*	−0.20	−0.07	0.28**	0.10	0.73	−1.64
Orthodox	0.23	−0.64	1.47	−0.85	0.03	−1.47**	0.46
Protestant	0.34	0.44	0.46	−0.72	−0.28	−2.55	0.63**	0.06	0.10	2.65	0.38	0.56**
Others	0.27	0.18	0.34	0.45	−1.46*	−0.08	0.43	−0.77	0.03	−0.19	−0.26	1.13
Believing
God	0.37*	−0.04	−0.47*	0.01	−0.03	0.38	0.43*	0.47	0.07	0.48**	−0.12	0.28
Life after death	0.07	0.54	−0.25	0.12	0.37	0.08	0.09	−0.03	0.01	0.11	−0.12	−0.01
Hell	−0.06	−0.24	0.81**	0.02	0.14	−0.01	0.26	−0.01	0.14	−0.02	0.09	−0.05
Heaven	0.22	1.25**	−0.10	−0.02	−0.50	0.20	−0.04	0.00	0.05	0.08	0.13	0.26
Individual religiosity
Importance of God in life	0.02	0.03	0.11**	−0.10**	0.01	0.06	−0.02	−0.06	0.01	−0.02	−0.02	0.00
Importance of religion in life	0.02	0.15	0.56**	−0.28	0.37	0.47**	−0.02	0.04	0.17	0.27	0.04	0.02
	West Germany	East Germany	Austria	Belgium	Bulgaria	Croatia	Denmark	Slovak Republic	Slovenia	Spain	Estonia	Finland
Trust in religious institutions	0.17	0.39	−0.27	0.27	0.01	0.58**	0.24*	0.06	0.47**	0.81**	−0.02	−0.02
Constant	3.83**	5.22**	4.89**	5.12**	5.51**	3.86**	5.24**	5.25**	4.35**	3.34**	4.46**	2.90**
R²	0.15	0.17	0.10	0.05	0.10	0.21	0.05	0.06	0.24	0.22	0.14	0.06
n	630	540	790	1.196	652	805	1.224	641	695	739	746	634
	France	Greece	Hungary	Ireland	Iceland	Italy	Latvia	Lithuania	Macedonia	Malta	Moldova	Montenegro
Sociodemographic variables
Gender (ref: man)	0.10	0.56**	−0.04	−0.15	0.66**	0.31**	−0.04	−0.09	0.55*	0.07	−0.20	−0.14
Age	0.00	0.01	−0.02**	0.02**	−0.01	0.00	0.01	0.01	−0.0*	−0.01**	−0.02**	−0.01
Education	0.00	−0.01	−0.04*	0.02	−0.02	0.00	0.03	0.03*	−0.0	−0.07**	0.06**	0.00
Religious practice
Weekly church attendance	0.50*	0.39*	0.22	0.29*	0.54	0.02	−0.05	0.33	0.09	−0.12	−0.13	0.46*
Praying frequency	−0.09	−0.32	0.13	−0.33	−0.26	−0.01	−0.48**	0.12	−0.2	0.01	0.23	−0.04
Religious denomination
Catholic	0.86**	−0.03	0.52*	0.18	0.09	−0.01	−0.30	0.24	0.52	0.44	−0.30
Orthodox	0.68	−0.27	−1.28**	−0.36	−1.4**	−0.44	−0.52	−0.18
Protestant	0.42	−0.13	0.74	0.84	−0.20	0.63**	−1.05	0.90	−2.64
Others	0.35	0.42	−1.48*	0.20	0.61	−1.45*	0.71	−1.20	−0.0	−1.25	0.27
Believing
God	0.19	0.70	−0.02	0.32	−0.44	0.23	−0.13	0.08	1.41**	0.14	0.18	−0.17
Life after death	0.02	0.23	−0.11	0.36*	−0.07	0.12	−0.16	0.15	−0.0	−0.19	0.71**	−0.11
	France	Greece	Hungary	Ireland	Iceland	Italy	Latvia	Lithuania	Macedonia	Malta	Moldova	Montenegro
Hell	0.49*	0.16	0.59**	−0.34*	0.26	0.19	−0.03	−0.56	0.31	0.15	0.12	−0.08
Heaven	−0.10	−0.17	−0.53*	−0.20	0.15	−0.17	0.02	0.53	0.08	−0.17	−0.25	0.34
Individual religiosity
Importance of God in life	−0.04	0.08	0.02	0.08	−0.01	−0.07*	0.05	0.05	0.02	−0.01	0.07	−0.01
Importance of religion in life	0.00	0.23	0.01	−0.14	−0.23	0.40*	0.02	−0.20	0.35	0.18	−0.41	0.10
Trust in religious institutions	0.20	0.78**	0.27*	0.13	0.34	0.14	0.26	−0.22	−0.2	−0.67**	−0.39	0.04
Constant	4.37**	3.64**	7.53**	3.47**	4.98**	3.74**	4.97**	4.91**	6.56**	6.52**	3.65**	6.36**
R²	0.09	0.13	0.06	0.17	0.06	0.08	0.18	0.04	0.12	0.15	0.09	0.03
n	1011	768	763	496	459	684	554	577	437	744	675	635
	Norway	Netherl.	Poland	Portugal	Czech Republic	Great Britain	Romania	Russia	Serbia	Sweden	Switzerl.	Ukraine
Sociodemographic variables
Gender (ref: man)	0.95**	0.33**	−0.09	0.04	−0.17	0.15	−0.04	−0.56**	0.36	0.42*	0.80**	0.01
Age	0.01	−0.01	−0.01**	0.00**	−0.02**	0.00	−0.01	−0.03**	0.01	0.00	0.01	−0.02**
Education	−0.04	−0.04*	0.00	0.02	0.29**	−0.03*	0.02	−0.01	−0.0	0.02	0.00	−0.03
Religious practice
Weekly church attendance	−0.22	0.01	0.17	0.38	0.31	−0.12	0.01	−0.05	0.03	−0.14	−0.06	0.23
Praying frequency	−0.46	−0.45**	−0.20	0.33	−0.06	−0.14	0.42	0.00	−0.2	−0.18	0.01	−0.16
Religious denomination
Catholic	1.61	0.60**	0.64	0.92*	−0.16	−0.05	0.11	0.28	−0.8	1.05	0.45	0.00
	Norway	Netherl.	Poland	Portugal	Czech Republic	Great Britain	Romania	Russia	Serbia	Sweden	Switzerl.	Ukraine
Orthodox	0.13	−3.24**	−2.49	−0.45	−0.03	0.35	−0.05	0.01	−0.23
Protestant	0.68*	1.10**	0.94	0.30	−0.31	0.51**	0.04	1.04	−1.7	0.13	0.74**	−0.37
Others	1.10	0.79**	1.19	−0.64	−0.48	−0.07	1.91	1.74**	0.51	−0.34
Believing
God	−0.57	0.16	−0.44	0.16	0.14	−0.19	−0.75	−0.01	−0.5	−0.03	0.22	0.16
Life after death	0.56*	−0.09	0.31	0.09	0.12	0.11	−0.19	−0.36	−0.1	−0.20	−0.17	−0.17
Hell	0.49	0.32	0.20	0.29	0.23	0.23	−0.17	−0.01	0.05	0.11	0.43	−0.65*
Heaven	0.00	0.15	0.20	−0.17	−0.70*	−0.11	0.09	0.22	−0.6	0.31	0.10	0.94**
Individual religiosity
Importance of God in life	0.07	−0.02	0.09	0.13**	−0.03	−0.09**	−0.02	0.06	0.09	−0.06	0.03	−0.03
Importance of religion in life	−0.57	−0.20	−0.25	−0.37	0.30	0.14	0.24	−0.19	0.41	−0.43	−0.11	−0.22
Trust in religious institutions	0.28	0.21	0.53**	0.54*	0.04	−0.10	0.03	−0.08	0.47*	0.45*	−0.16	0.11
Constant	5.72**	6.01**	6.14**	2.11**	4.98**	5.59**	6.71**	7.78**	4.23**	4.63**	3.95**	6.43**
R²	0.06	0.07	0.12	0.11	0.09	0.07	0.04	0.09	0.06	0.05	0.11	0.06
n	827	1200	587	546	807	791	615	804	774	652	554	728

Source: EVS (2008).
^*Statistically Significant at 0.05. ^**Statistically Significant at 0.05.
Standard Errors Not Included for the Lack of Simplicity. Results Upon Request.

References

Achen, C. H. (1982) Interpreting and Using Regression. Quantitative Applications in Social Science. Beverly Hills and London: Sage.10.4135/9781412984560Search in Google Scholar

Baldassari, D. and A. Gelman (2008) “Partisans Without Constraint: Political Polarization and Trends in American Public Opinion,” American Journal of Sociology, 72:784–811.Search in Google Scholar

Bartle, J. (1998) “Left-Right Position Matters, But Does Social Class? Causal Models of the 1992 British General Election,” British Journal of Political Science, 28(3):501–529.10.1017/S0007123498000222Search in Google Scholar

Bréchon, P. (2000) “Religious Voting in a Secular France,” In: (D. Broughton and H. M. ten Napel, eds.) Religion and Mass Electoral Behaviour in Europe. London: Sage.Search in Google Scholar

Brooks, C. and J. Manza (1997) “Class Politics and Political Change in the United States, 1952–1992,” Social Forces, 76:379–408.10.2307/2580718Search in Google Scholar

Brooks, C., P. Nieuwbeerta and J. Manza (2006) “Cleavage-Based Voting Behaviour in Cross-National Perspective: Evidence from Six Post-War Democracies,” Social Science Research, 35:88–128.10.1016/j.ssresearch.2004.06.005Search in Google Scholar

Calvo, K., Á. Martínez and J.R. Montero (2010) A Difficult Friendship: Religiosity, Ideology, and Vote in Spain. Luxembourg: IPSA International Conference.Search in Google Scholar

Chaves, M. (1994) “Secularization as Declining Religious Authority,” Social Forces, 72(3): 749–774.10.2307/2579779Search in Google Scholar

Chhibber, P. and M. Torcal (1997) “Elite Strategy, Social Cleavages, and Party Systems in a New Democracy: Spain,” Comparative Political Studies, 30:27–53.10.1177/0010414097030001002Search in Google Scholar

Cordero, G. (2012) Religiosidad y Comportamiento Electoral en Europa. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.Search in Google Scholar

Cordero, G. (2014) “The Activation of the Religious Vote in Spain (1979-2011),” Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas 147:3–20.Search in Google Scholar

Dalton, R. J. (1998) “Comparative Politics: Micro-Behavioral Perspectives”. In: (R. E. Goodin and H. D. Klingemann, eds.) A New Handbook of Political Science Vol. 1. Oxford: Scholarship Online Monographs, pp. 336–353.10.1093/0198294719.003.0013Search in Google Scholar

Dalton, R. J. (2002) “Political Cleavages, Issues, and Electoral Change”. In: (L. LeDuc, R. G. Niemi and P. Norris, eds.) Comparing Democracies 2. New Challenges in the Study of Elections and Voting:189–209. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.Search in Google Scholar

Dalton, R. J., S. Flanagan and P. A. Beck (1984) Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies: Realignment or Dealignment? Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.10.1515/9781400885879Search in Google Scholar

de Graaf, N. D., A. Heath and A. Need (2001) “Declining Cleavages and Political Choices: The Interplay of Social and Political Factors in The Netherlands,” Electoral Studies, 20:1–15.10.1016/S0261-3794(99)00061-XSearch in Google Scholar

Dogan, M. (1995) “Erosion of Class Voting and of the Religious Vote in Western Europe,” International Social Science Journal, 47:525–38.Search in Google Scholar

Eisinga, R., A. Felling and J. Lammers (1994) “Religious Affiliation, Income Stratification, and Political Party Preference in The Netherlands”, 1964 to 1992. Netherlands Journal of Social Sciences, 30:107–127.Search in Google Scholar

Elff, M. (2007) “Social Structure and Electoral Behavior in Comparative Perspective: the Decline of Social Cleavages in Western Europe Revisited,” Perspectives on Politics, 5(2):277–294.10.1017/S1537592707070788Search in Google Scholar

Elff, M. (2009) “Social Divisions, Party Positions, and Electoral Behaviour,” Electoral Studies, 28(2):297–308.10.1016/j.electstud.2009.02.002Search in Google Scholar

Enyedi, Z. (2000) “Clerical and Religious Polarization in Hungary,” In: (D. Broughton and H. M. ten Napel, eds.) Religion and Mass Electoral Behaviour. London: Routledge, pp. 157–176.Search in Google Scholar

Enyedi, Z. (2006) “Party Politics in Post-Communist Transition,” In: (R. S. Katz and W. J. Crotty, eds.) Handbook of Party Politics. London: Sage, pp. 228–238.10.4135/9781848608047.n20Search in Google Scholar

Evans, G. and S. Whitefield (1993) “Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe,” British Journal of Political Science, 23(4):521–548.10.1017/S0007123400006712Search in Google Scholar

Evans, G. and A. Need (2002) “Explaining Ethnic Polarization Over Attitudes Towards Minority Rights Eastern Europe: A Multilevel Analysis,” Social Science Research, 31(4):653–680.10.1016/S0049-089X(02)00018-2Search in Google Scholar

Evans, G. and N. D. de Graaf (2013) Political Choice Matters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199663996.001.0001Search in Google Scholar

Fink-Hafner, D. (2006) “Slovenia: Between Bipolarity and Broad Coalition-Building,” In: (S. Jungerstam, ed.) Post-communist EU Member States: Parties and Party Systems. Hampshire: Ashgate, pp. 203–231.Search in Google Scholar

Franklin, M. N., T. Mackie and H. Valen (1992 (2009)). Electoral Change: Responses to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Countries. Colchester: ECPR.Search in Google Scholar

Freire, A. (2001). Mudança Eleitoral em Portugal. Cleavages, Economia e Voto em Eleiçoes Legislativas, 1983–1999. Oeiras: Celta Editora.Search in Google Scholar

Freire, A. (2006) “Bringing Social Identities Back In: The Social Anchors of Left-Right Orientation in Western Europe,” International Political Science Review, 27(4):359–378.10.1177/0192512106067358Search in Google Scholar

Freire, A., M. Costa-Lobo and P. Magalhães (2009) “The Clarity of Policy Alternatives, Left-Right and the European Parliament Vote in 2004,” The Journal of European Integration, 31(5):665–683.10.1080/07036330903145914Search in Google Scholar

Froese, P. (2001) “Hungary for religion: A Supply‐Side Interpretation of the Hungarian Religious Revival,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40(2):251–268.10.1111/0021-8294.00054Search in Google Scholar

Fuchs, D. and H. D. Klingemann (1990) The Left-Right Schema. In: (M. K. Jennings, J. W. van Deth, eds.) Continuities in Political Action, Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 203–234.10.1515/9783110882193.203Search in Google Scholar

Gautier, M. L. (1997) “Church Attendance and Religious Belief in Postcommunist Societies,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36(2):289–296.10.2307/1387559Search in Google Scholar

Heath, A., N. D. de Graaf and A. Need (1997) “Class and Nation in England and Scotland,” In: (C. Pattie, D. Denver, J. Fisher and S. Ludlam, eds.), British Elections and Parties Review. London: Frank Cass, pp. 55–73.10.1080/13689889708412989Search in Google Scholar

Huber, J. D. (1989) “Values and Partisanship in left‐right Orientations: Measuring ideology,” European Journal of Political Research, 17(5):599–621.10.1111/j.1475-6765.1989.tb00209.xSearch in Google Scholar

Inglehart, R. (1997) Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.10.1515/9780691214429Search in Google Scholar

Inglehart, R. and J. R. Rabier (1986) “Political Realignment in Advanced Industrial Society: From Class-Based Politics to Quality-of-Life Politics,” Government and Opposition, 21(4):456–479.10.1111/j.1477-7053.1986.tb00032.xSearch in Google Scholar

Jagodzinski, W. and K. Dobbelaere (1995) “Secularization and Church Religiosity,” In: (J. W. van Deth and E. Scarbrough, eds.) The Impact of Values. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Ka-Lok Chan, K. (2001) “Structuralism Versus Intentionalism in Post-Communist Party System Evolution: The Polish case,” Party Politics, 7:605–619.10.1177/1354068801007005005Search in Google Scholar

Knutsen, O. (1997) “The Partisan and the Value-Based Component of Left-Right Self-Placement: A Comparative Study,” International Political Science Review, 18(2):191–225.10.1177/019251297018002005Search in Google Scholar

Knutsen, O. (2004) “Religious Denomination and Party Choice in Western Europe: A Comparative Longitudinal Study from Eight Countries, 1970–1997,” International Political Science Review, 25(1):97–128.10.1177/0192512104038169Search in Google Scholar

Knutsen, O. (2010) The Religious Cleavage in 24 European Countries: A Comparative Study. Goteborg: XVII ISA World Congress.Search in Google Scholar

Laver, M. J. and I. Budge (1992) Party Policy and Government Coalitions. London: Sage.10.1007/978-1-349-22368-8Search in Google Scholar

Lijphart, A. (1979) “Religious vs. Linguistic vs. Class Voting: The ‘Crucial Experiment’ of Comparing Belgium, Canada, South Africa, and Switzerland,” The American Political Science Review, 73(2):442–458.10.4324/9781315193588-16Search in Google Scholar

Lipset, S. M. and S. Rokkan. (1967) Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National Perspectives. New York: The Free Press.Search in Google Scholar

Mackie, T., R. Mannheimer and G. Sani (1992) “Italy,” In: (M. N. Franklin, T. T. Mackie and H. Valen, eds.) Electoral Change. Responses to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Countries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Madeley, J. (2000) “Reading the Runes,” In: (D. Broughton and H. M. ten Napel, eds.). Religion and Mass Electoral Behaviour. London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar

Manza, J. and N. Wright (2003) “Religion and Political Behaviour,” In: (M. Dillon, ed.) Handbook of the Sociology of Religion, 297. New York: Oxford University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511807961.021Search in Google Scholar

Markowski, R. (1997) “Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe,” Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 30(3):221–254.10.1016/S0967-067X(97)00006-8Search in Google Scholar

McAllister, I. and S. White (2007) “Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Post-Communist Societies,” Party Politics, 13(2):197–216.10.1177/1354068807073858Search in Google Scholar

Montero, J. R., K. Calvo, and Á. Martínez (2008) “El Voto Religioso en España y Portugal,” Revista Internacional de Sociología 66(51):19–54.Search in Google Scholar

Navarrete, R., J. Balaguer and G. Cordero (2017) “Too Religious to be Left?,” In: (K. Calvo, J.R. Montero and P. Segatti, eds.) Religious Voting in Western Democracies: Past Legacies and New Conflicts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Accepted for publication].Search in Google Scholar

Nicolet, S. and A. Tresch (2009) “Changing Religiosity, Changing Politics? The Influence of ‘Belonging’ and ‘Believing’ on Political Attitudes in Switzerland,” Politics and Religion, 2:76–99.10.1017/S1755048309000042Search in Google Scholar

Norris, P. and R. Inglehart (2004) Sacred and Secular Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511791017Search in Google Scholar

Oskarson, M. (2005) “Social Structure and Party Choice,” In: (J. Thomassen, ed.) The European Voter. A Comparative Study of Modern Democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/0199273219.003.0004Search in Google Scholar

Raymond, C. (2011) “The Continued Salience of Religious Voting in the United States, Germany, and Great Britain,” Electoral Studies, 30:125–135.10.1016/j.electstud.2010.10.001Search in Google Scholar

Rose, R. and D. Urwin (1969) “Social Cohesion, Political Parties and Strains in Regimes,” Comparative Political Studies, 2(1):7–67.10.1177/001041406900200103Search in Google Scholar

Sani, G. (1974) “A Test of a Least-Distance Mode of Voting-Choice: Italy, 1972,” Comparative Political Studies, 7(2):193–208.10.1177/001041407400700203Search in Google Scholar

Thomassen, J. (2005) The European Voter: A Comparative Study of Modern Democracies. Toronto: Oxford University Press.10.1093/0199273219.001.0001Search in Google Scholar

Turner, B. S. (1983) Religion and Social Theory. London: SAGE Publications.Search in Google Scholar

van der Brug, W., M. Franklin, and G. Tóka (2008) “One Electorate or Many? Differences in Party Preference Formation Between New and Established European democracies,” Electoral Studies, 27(4):589–600.10.1016/j.electstud.2007.12.010Search in Google Scholar

Volkens, A., O. Lacewell, P. Lehman, S. Regel and A. Werner (2010) The Manifesto Data Collection. Berlin: Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung.Search in Google Scholar

Whitefield, S. (2002) “Political Cleavages and Post-Communist Politics,” Annual Review of Political Science, 5:181–200.10.1146/annurev.polisci.5.112601.144242Search in Google Scholar

Published Online: 2017-4-28

Published in Print: 2017-4-25

You are currently not able to access this content.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/wps-2017-0001

Keywords for this article

electoral behaviour; europe; religiosity; religious voting