Correlations between meaning in life and nature connectedness: German-language validation of two topic-related measures and practical implications

3.1 Sample and procedure

The participants were mainly students (e. g., art therapy, music therapy, philosophy, medicine, education, psychology, sociology, mathematics, chemistry, economics, liberal arts, theology, biology, music) recruited through advertisements on the local university intranet, which provided a link to the online survey, through email recruitment, and word of mouth. Some of the participants did not provide any information regarding their study program. Very few participants did not (only) belong to the academic community but mentioned some additional details (student at school, retiree). As inclusion criteria, we set a lower age limit of 18 years and fluency in the German language. The study was administered on the online survey platform LimeSurvey. A total of 406 people clicked on the survey link and reached the instruction site through which an ID number was initiated. 53 individuals did not finish the survey; they either did not start to fill out the first page (n = 23) with demographics and left the website, or they did not provide complete data, i. e., quit the survey at some point (n = 30). The remaining 353 participants with a complete data set consisted of 292 females (82.7 %), 57 males (16.1 %), and 4 diverse (1.1 %). The average age was 25.9 years (S. D. = 8.1, range: 18–65). Of the 353 participants, 329 reported German as their native language (93.2 %).

3.2 Measures

3.3 Statistical analysis

4.1 Internal validation of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ)

The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) criterion with 0.888 revealed very good sampling adequacy. Bartlett’s Test for Sphericity was significant with χ² = 2027.98, df = 45, p < .001. These indices suggest that the data can be utilised for exploratory factor analysis.

Two factors were extracted for the 10-item MLQ. Communalities h2 < .30 were not observed for any of the items. See the scree plot for the ten items in Figure 3. The two-factor solution for the MLQ explains 60.5 % of the variance. An overview of the final exploratory factor analysis can be seen in Table 1. Cronbach’s alpha values indicating internal consistency were very good for the two subscales, with α = .912 for ‘presence of meaning in life’ and α = .871 for ‘search for meaning in life’. The descriptive statistics of the MLQ subscores are: presence of meaning in life: M = 4.99 (SD: 1.29), range: 1 – 7 and search for meaning in life: M = 4.37 (SD: 1.27), range: 1 – 7.

Fig. 3:

Scree plot for the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) suggesting two factors to be extracted

4.2 Internal validation of the Nature Connection Index (NCI)

Sampling adequacy according to the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) criterion was very good: KMO = .834. The Bartlett Test for Sphericity showed significance with χ² = 745.36, df = 15, and p < .001. These results indicate that the data are suitable for the exploratory factor analysis.

One factor was extracted for the 6-item NCI. Communalities h2 < .30 were observed for one item (item 2: h2 = .169) removed from the subsequent analysis. See the scree plot for the remaining five items in Figure 4. The one-factor solution for the five-item NCI explains 60.5 % of the variance. An overview of the final exploratory factor analysis with five items can be seen in Table 2. Cronbach’s alpha indicating internal consistency was good with α = .802. The descriptive statistics of the NCI sum score for the five-item version are M = 5.82 (SD: 0.87) and range: 2.2 – 7. The six-item, non-linear weighted NCI score was calculated for comparison with international surveys (Richardson et al. 2019) with a mean of 61.3 % (SD = 20.6 %) and a range of 12 – 97 %. The five-item NCI score and the six-item NCI% score are highly correlated with r = .958, p < .001. The validated five-item (non-weighted) score was used below.

Fig. 4:

Scree plot for the Nature Connection Index (NCI) suggesting one factor to be extracted

4.3 External validity with intercorrelations among the questionnaires

The NCI score correlates significantly and positively with the subscale ‘presence of meaning in life’ (r = .351, p < .001) but not with ‘search for meaning in life' (r = .035, p < .516). The presence of meaning and the search for meaning in life are negatively correlated (r = –.260, p < .001); the more perceived meaning an individual reports, the less one searches for meaning in life.

Further associations among nature connectedness (NCI), the MLQ presence and search for meaning of life and the (sub-)scales of the Big Five Inventory (five personality scales) and the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory with the subscales ‘presence’ and ‘acceptance’ were calculated (see Table 3). Cronbach’s α for the BFI and FMI in our study reached an acceptable level with two exceptions (see Table 3 for individual values).

The NCI correlates weakly and negatively (r = –.172) with ‘neuroticism’ and positively with ‘openness to new experiences’ (r = .202); the more nature connectedness, the lower the neuroticism and the higher the openness. Regarding mindfulness, the higher the NCI, the greater the presence (r = .470) and acceptance (r = .270) reported by individuals.

The presence of meaning in life correlated positively with conscientiousness (r = .174), negatively with neuroticism (r = –.368), and positively with openness to new experiences (r = .228), and moderately positively with the two subscales of mindfulness, ‘presence’ (r = .424) and ‘acceptance’ (r = .487). The search for meaning was positively related to neuroticism (r = .284) and negatively to acceptance (r = –.209).

5.1 Validation of the German versions of the MLQ and the NCI

Our study results conform with the validation criteria for questionnaires. Regarding this validation of the German translations of the two measures in the English language (MLQ, NCI), we confirmed the original versions’ two-factor (MLQ) and one-factor structure with the exploratory factor analysis using unweighted least squares as the extraction method. Cronbach’s alpha indicating internal consistency was high for the two MLQ subscales, the presence of meaning in life and the search for meaning in life, as well as for the five-item version of the NCI. The original item 2 had to be excluded from the NCI because its commonality was too low.

5.2 Meaning in life

Inter-scale correlations show that the two MLQ subscales (presence of and search for meaning in life) correlate negatively. Previous studies led to similar outcomes (e. g., Fischer et al. 2021). This may indicate that if individuals perceive their lives as meaningful, the need to search for meaning is less pronounced. The presence of meaning in life is associated with more openness to new experiences, more conscientiousness, less neuroticism, and moderately with the two mindfulness subscales presence and acceptance. The search for meaning relates to more neuroticism and less acceptance. Steger et al.’s (2006) investigation provides similar outcomes, showing that meaning in life correlates with positive emotions, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. In contrast, the search for meaning in life is associated with negative emotions, neuroticism, and depression. Steger and colleagues (2006) commented that the positive correlation between the presence of meaning in life and conscientiousness, where we also found a weak but significant correlation, was unexpected. Although they do not provide a hypothesis regarding this correlation in their article, a previous study among college students by Lightsey et al. (2014) indicated that conscientiousness and self-efficacy positively influence meaning actualisation by decreasing the frequency of negative thoughts and by increasing the frequency of positive thoughts relating to purpose and value. Meaning contains a sense of coherence (understanding), a sense of significance (value), and a sense of direction (purpose) (Lomas et al. 2014). More conscientious individuals may be less prone to negative thoughts, more value- and purpose-oriented, and more successful at realising meaning in life.

The other correlations among the presence of meaning, the big five personality traits (more openness to new experiences, less neuroticism), and the FMI subscales (presence, acceptance) could be interpreted in the context of mental health models. According to Frankl’s logotherapy and existential analysis, a human is mentally healthy inasmuch as one can realise meaning in life (Pfeifer 2021b). Self-transcendence – the human ability to be directed toward something other than oneself – is a form of openness towards the world and new experiences, a crucial element in meaning-actualization. Rogers’ and Maslow’s humanistic model of mental health claims a mentally healthy human is open to new experiences and accepts and appreciates himself/herself (Pfeifer 2020). The positive correlation between the presence of meaning in life, the above-mentioned personality traits, mindfulness, and acceptance may be interpreted as an indicator of mental health and well-being.

The negative correlation between the presence of meaning and the search for it, as well as correlations among (more neuroticism) and one FMI subscale (less acceptance), could easily be judged as undesirable about health and well-being. However, research has led to insights that demand a multifaceted approach to the search for meaning (Russo-Netzer 2019). Results of a meta-analysis (Li et al. 2021) support the notion that the “[…] search for meaning may be adverse to SWB [subjective well-being], but the effect is small and conditional” (Li et al.: 467). The search for meaning is not something ‘bad’ or ‘unhealthy’ per se. On the contrary, it is the most human of human motivations (Frankl 1992). The search for meaning may be unpleasant at times, as it may trigger tension and neuroticism rather than inner balance or self-acceptance.

However, precisely such tension is an indispensable prerequisite of mental health. There is nothing in the world, I venture to say, that would so effectively help one to survive even the worst conditions as the knowledge that there is a meaning in one’s life (Frankl 1992: 109).

5.3 Nature connectedness

The results of our study indicate a significant and positive correlation between nature connectedness and the presence of meaning in life, but not between nature connectedness and the search for meaning. Our study results coincide with previous studies’ results (Cervinka et al. 2011; Howell et al. 2013). Frankl held nature in high esteem in relation to meaning fulfilment and a meaningful life. Nature is an important factor in the second pathway to meaning realization in Frankl’s model of meaning fulfilment: the experiential values (see section 5.4 for further details). According to Frankl (1992), meaning in life can be actualised by experiencing the splendour of nature. A distinct nature connectedness could imply and promote a meaningful life, hence the presence of meaning in life.

The higher the nature connectedness was among individuals, the higher their openness to new experiences, the higher their mindfulness-related acceptance and presence, and the lower their neuroticism. Our study outcomes concur with those of Howell et al. (2011), who found that nature connectedness significantly correlates with mindfulness, and those of Nisbet et al. (2009), indicating a positive connection between nature-relatedness and openness and a negative one between nature relatedness and neuroticism. Investigations also showed that nature-assisted interventions reduce rumination and increase the individual’s orientation of being in the here and now (Pfeifer et al. 2020). A mindful, present orientation as an individual trait positively predicts sustainable attitudes and behaviours (Wittmann & Sircova 2018). Nature connectedness can be seen as an indicator of mindfulness – one’s ability to be open and attentive towards the present moment and what is happening (Brown & Ryan 2003). Howell et al. (2011) stated that “[t]he enhanced sensory impact of experiences in nature fostered by mindfulness may strengthen nature connectedness among mindful individuals” (Howell et al.: 167).

5.4 Practical implications – introduction of a nature-assisted model of meaning fulfilment

Considering the outcomes of our study, the question arises of how to move on from here in a more practical sense. How can these outcomes be transferred into the contexts of healthcare? We focused on practical implications by introducing a nature-assisted model of meaning fulfilment that can be applied in healthcare practices and (psycho-)therapeutic treatment.

Frankl (2000) provided an easily comprehensible model of meaning actualisation. He listed three pathways along which an individual can realize meaning in life: creative, experiential, and attitudinal values. First, one can find meaning through work that has been achieved or a deed that has been accomplished. The principles of these creative values are activity and productivity. The homo faber, the working human, and the physical dimension of a human being are associated with these values.

Second, meaning can be actualised through human reception of the world, the experience of nature, art, happiness, love, and meditation. Experiential values refer to the homo amans, the loving human and the human being’s psychological dimension. The core principles of these values include emotionality, contemplation, devotion, and receptivity.

Third, Frankl (2000) mentioned the attitudinal values that rank highest among the three avenues of meaning. Heroic achievements and attitudes in terms of bearing or coping with strokes of fate and suffering are related principles. Attitudinal values are linked to the spiritual dimension of the individual (Pfeifer 2021c). The suffering human (homo patiens) is the correlated anthropological symbol.

In an article on the spiritual dimension in meaning-oriented psychotherapy, Pfeifer (2021a) provided an overview that summarises all the information on the three pathways to meaning in life, the related principles, and anthropological symbols within a figure. He also adapted Frankl’s model of meaning actualisation to music therapy – again displayed by implementing a summarising figure (Pfeifer 2021c). The subsequent figure (see Figure 5) outlines the nature-assisted model of meaning fulfilment that strongly relies on the theoretical foundations by Frankl and Pfeifer and the figures included in Pfeifer’s writings mentioned above.

Nature can play an important role in the pathways of meaning fulfilment through the three different values. First, meaning actualisation arises from active engagement in or with nature. For example, if one creates art with materials from nature (e. g., land art), does gardening work (in healthcare contexts, this could be horticultural therapy), takes care of nature (participation in nature conservation projects, involvement in the field of nature ethics), or is actively engaged in creating something in nature or with natural materials (e. g., a log cabin, clothing, gifts for others, tools, musical instruments).

Second, experiencing nature also leads to the realisation of meaning in life. Frankl (1992) frequently mentioned the experience of the splendour of nature as an example of meaning fulfilment. Other examples include contemplation on the pure beauty of a flower, the smell of blooming meadows in springtime reminiscent of joyful childhood days, sensing the cooling raindrops on one’s face after a tough but satisfying working day, or hearing birdsongs and natural sounds in general.

Fig. 5:

The nature-assisted model of meaning fulfilment adapted from Frankl’s (2000) and Pfeifer’s (2021a; 2021c) theoretical foundations

Finally, nature can also be a space or effective agent for change of an individual’s attitude or stance towards suffering, life challenges, and strokes of fate. Jordan (2015) provided a vivid example of nature-assisted therapy: “The idea that ‘you can’t control the weather’ mirrored the process that we cannot always control the emotional weather of our lives and relationships” (Jordan 2015: 5). In a study by Ulrich (1984), patients recovering from surgery in a hospital setting either stayed in a room with a view of a tree or in a room with a view of a brick wall through their room windows. Those with a tree view needed less medication and had fewer inpatient days, fewer post-operative complications, and fewer negative comments in the nurses’ documentation records. We assume that nature helped initiate a change in the patients’ attitudes towards post-surgery suffering and pain, which ultimately resulted in the various positive effects mentioned.

Prior to Frankl’s introduction of his meaning-oriented approach in psychotherapy – and the importance of nature in meaning fulfilment through the realisation of experiential values –, some pioneers in psychotherapy were probably already aware of the benefits of engagement in/with nature, experiencing nature, and nature as an active agent for change or effective therapeutic space. Sigmund Freud, for example, conducted psychoanalytic sessions (Freud & Ferenczi 1993) while walking outdoors. C. G. Jung went sailing on Lake Zurich with his patients as part of his psychotherapy sessions (Rust 2019), and Hans Zulliger (1973) invented so-called treatment or therapy walks in nature as an approach to psychoanalytic psychotherapy with children and adolescents. Meanwhile, various therapeutic approaches (e. g., forest therapy) incorporate outdoor stays in nature into their therapeutic procedure because of the physiological and psychological benefits (Bögle 2022).

The nature-assisted model of meaning fulfilment may be a first step into providing a theoretical framework focusing on the mutually effective combination of nature, meaning in life, health, healthcare, and well-being. It also offers perspectives towards practical application. Further experimentation and discussion are necessary and indicated.