Prognostic factors in prolonged disorders of consciousness: a narrative review

References

Anestis, D.M., Tsitsopoulos, P.P., Tsonidis, C.A., and Foroglou, N. (2020). The current significance of the FOUR score: a systematic review and critical analysis of the literature. J. Neurol. Sci. 409: 116600, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2019.116600.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Arnaldi, D., Terzaghi, M., Cremascoli, R., De Carli, F., Maggioni, G., Pistarini, C., Nobili, F., Moglia, A., and Manni, R. (2016). The prognostic value of sleep patterns in disorders of consciousness in the sub-acute phase. Clin. Neurophysiol. 127: 1445–1451, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2015.10.042.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Arzi, A., Rozenkrantz, L., Gorodisky, L., Rozenkrantz, D., Holtzman, Y., Ravia, A., Bekinschtein, T.A., Galperin, T., Krimchansky, B.Z., Cohen, G., et al. (2020). Olfactory sniffing signals consciousness in unresponsive patients with brain injuries. Nature 581: 428–433, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2245-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Ashwal, S. (2004). Pediatric vegetative state: epidemiological and clinical issues. NeuroRehabilitation 19: 349–360, https://doi.org/10.3233/nre-2004-19412.Search in Google Scholar

Azabou, E., Navarro, V., Kubis, N., Gavaret, M., Heming, N., Cariou, A., Annane, D., Lofaso, F., Naccache, L., and Sharshar, T. (2018). Value and mechanisms of EEG reactivity in the prognosis of patients with impaired consciousness: a systematic review. Crit. Care 22: 184, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-018-2104-z.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Babiloni, C., Sarà, M., Vecchio, F., Pistoia, F., Sebastiano, F., Onorati, P., Albertini, G., Pasqualetti, P., Cibelli, G., Buffo, P., et al.. (2009). Cortical sources of resting-state alpha rhythms are abnormal in persistent vegetative state patients. Clin. Neurophysiol. 120: 719–729, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2009.02.157.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Bagnato, S., Boccagni, C., Prestandrea, C., Fingelkurts, A.A., Fingelkurts, A.A., and Galardi, G. (2017). Changes in standard electroencephalograms parallel consciousness improvements in patients with unresponsive wakefulness syndrome. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 98: 665–672, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2016.09.132.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Bagnato, S., Boccagni, C., Sant’Angelo, A., Prestandrea, C., Mazzilli, R., and Galardi, G. (2015). EEG predictors of outcome in patients with disorders of consciousness admitted for intensive rehabilitation. Clin. Neurophysiol. 126: 959–966, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2014.08.005.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Bai, Y., Xia, X., Wang, Y., He, J., and Li, X. (2019). Electroencephalography quadratic phase self-coupling correlates with consciousness states and restoration in patients with disorders of consciousness. Clin. Neurophysiol. 130: 1235–1242, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2019.04.710.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Bernat, J.L. (2006). Chronic disorders of consciousness. Lancet 367: 1181–1192, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(06)68508-5.Search in Google Scholar

Bloomfield, S.M., McKinney, J., Smith, L., and Brisman, J. (2007). Reliability of S100B in predicting severity of central nervous system injury. Neurocrit. Care 6: 121–138, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-007-0008-x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Boccagni, C., Bagnato, S., Sant Angelo, A., Prestandrea, C., and Galardi, G. (2011). Usefulness of standard EEG in predicting the outcome of patients with disorders of consciousness after anoxic coma. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 28: 489–492, https://doi.org/10.1097/WNP.0b013e318231c8c8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Boltzmann, M., Schmidt, S.B., Gutenbrunner, C., Krauss, J.K., Stangel, M., Höglinger, G.U., Wallesch, C.W., and Rollnik, J.D. (2021). The influence of the CRS-R score on functional outcome in patients with severe brain injury receiving early rehabilitation. BMC Neurol. 21: 44, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-021-02063-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Cain, J.A., Spivak, N.M., Coetzee, J.P., Crone, J.S., Johnson, M.A., Lutkenhoff, E.S., Real, C., Buitrago-Blanco, M., Vespa, P.M., Schnakers, C., et al.. (2021). Ultrasonic thalamic stimulation in chronic disorders of consciousness. Brain Stimul. 14: 301–303, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2021.01.008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Carrière, M., Cassol, H., Aubinet, C., Panda, R., Thibaut, A., Larroque, S.K., Simon, J., Martial, C., Bahri, M.A., Chatelle, C., et al.. (2020). Auditory localization should be considered as a sign of minimally conscious state based on multimodal findings. Brain Commun. 2: fcaa195, https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcaa195.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Casarotto, S., Comanducci, A., Rosanova, M., Sarasso, S., Fecchio, M., Napolitani, M., Pigorini, A., A, G.C., Trimarchi, P.D., Boly, M., et al.. (2016). Stratification of unresponsive patients by an independently validated index of brain complexity. Ann. Neurol. 80: 718–729, https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24779.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Castro, M., Tillmann, B., Luauté, J., Corneyllie, A., Dailler, F., André-Obadia, N., and Perrin, F. (2015). Boosting cognition with music in patients with disorders of consciousness. Neurorehabilitation Neural Repair 29: 734–742, https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968314565464.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Cavinato, M., Freo, U., Ori, C., Zorzi, M., Tonin, P., Piccione, F., and Merico, A. (2009). Post-acute P300 predicts recovery of consciousness from traumatic vegetative state. Brain Inj. 23: 973–980, https://doi.org/10.3109/02699050903373493.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Chennu, S., Annen, J., Wannez, S., Thibaut, A., Chatelle, C., Cassol, H., Martens, G., Schnakers, C., Gosseries, O., Menon, D., et al.. (2017). Brain networks predict metabolism, diagnosis and prognosis at the bedside in disorders of consciousness. Brain 140: 2120–2132, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awx163.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Ciurleo, R., Bramanti, P., and Calabrò, R.S. (2013). Pharmacotherapy for disorders of consciousness: are ’awakening’ drugs really a possibility? Drugs 73: 1849–1862, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-013-0138-8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Coleman, M.R., Davis, M.H., Rodd, J.M., Robson, T., Ali, A., Owen, A.M., and Pickard, J.D. (2009). Towards the routine use of brain imaging to aid the clinical diagnosis of disorders of consciousness. Brain 132: 2541–2552, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awp183.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Cologan, V., Drouot, X., Parapatics, S., Delorme, A., Gruber, G., Moonen, G., and Laureys, S. (2013). Sleep in the unresponsive wakefulness syndrome and minimally conscious state. J. Neurotrauma 30: 339–346, https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2012.2654.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Comolatti, R., Pigorini, A., Casarotto, S., Fecchio, M., Faria, G., Sarasso, S., Rosanova, M., Gosseries, O., Boly, M., Bodart, O., et al.. (2019). A fast and general method to empirically estimate the complexity of brain responses to transcranial and intracranial stimulations. Brain Stimul. 12: 1280–1289, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2019.05.013.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Cui, Y., Song, M., Lipnicki, D.M., Yang, Y., Ye, C., Fan, L., Sui, J., Jiang, T., and He, J. (2018). Subdivisions of the posteromedial cortex in disorders of consciousness. Neuroimage Clin. 20: 260–266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2018.07.025.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Czeiter, E., Mondello, S., Kovacs, N., Sandor, J., Gabrielli, A., Schmid, K., Tortella, F., Wang, K.K., Hayes, R.L., Barzo, P., et al.. (2012). Brain injury biomarkers may improve the predictive power of the IMPACT outcome calculator. J. Neurotrauma 29: 1770–1778, https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.2127.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Dang, Y., Wang, Y., Xia, X., Yang, Y., Bai, Y., Zhang, J., and He, J. (2023). Deep brain stimulation improves electroencephalogram functional connectivity of patients with minimally conscious state. CNS Neurosci. Ther. 29: 344–353, https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.14009.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Di Gregorio, F., La Porta, F., Petrone, V., Battaglia, S., Orlandi, S., Ippolito, G., Romei, V., Piperno, R., and Lullini, G. (2022). Accuracy of EEG biomarkers in the detection of clinical outcome in disorders of consciousness after severe acquired brain injury: preliminary results of a pilot study using a machine learning approach. Biomedicines 10, https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10081897.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Engberg, A.W. and Teasdale, T.W. (2004). A population-based study of survival and discharge status for survivors after head injury. Acta Neurol. Scand. 110: 281–290, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0404.2004.00323.x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Estraneo, A., De Bellis, F., Masotta, O., Loreto, V., Fiorenza, S., Lo Sapio, M., and Trojano, L. (2019). Demographical and clinical indices for long-term evolution of patients in vegetative or in minimally conscious state. Brain Inj. 33: 1633–1639, https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2019.1658220.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Estraneo, A., Fiorenza, S., Magliacano, A., Formisano, R., Mattia, D., Grippo, A., Romoli, A.M., Angelakis, E., Cassol, H., Thibaut, A., et al.. (2020). Multicenter prospective study on predictors of short-term outcome in disorders of consciousness. Neurology 95: e1488–e1499, https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0000000000010254.Search in Google Scholar

Estraneo, A., Loreto, V., Masotta, O., Pascarella, A., and Trojano, L. (2018). Do medical complications impact long-term outcomes in prolonged disorders of consciousness? Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 99: 2523–2531.e2523, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2018.04.024.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Fingelkurts, A.A., Fingelkurts, A.A., Bagnato, S., Boccagni, C., and Galardi, G. (2013). Prognostic value of resting-state electroencephalography structure in disentangling vegetative and minimally conscious states: a preliminary study. Neurorehabilitation Neural Repair 27: 345–354, https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968312469836.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Formisano, R., Toppi, J., Risetti, M., Aloisi, M., Contrada, M., Ciurli, P.M., Falletta Caravasso, C., Luccichenti, G., Astolfi, L., Cincotti, F., et al.. (2019). Language-related brain potentials in patients with disorders of consciousness: a follow-up study to detect “covert” Language disorders. Neurorehabilitation Neural Repair 33: 513–522, https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968319846123.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Frey, K.A., Holthoff, V.A., Koeppe, R.A., Jewett, D.M., Kilbourn, M.R., and Kuhl, D.E. (1991). Parametric in vivo imaging of benzodiazepine receptor distribution in human brain. Ann. Neurol. 30: 663–672, https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410300506.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Fridman, E.A., Krimchansky, B.Z., Bonetto, M., Galperin, T., Gamzu, E.R., Leiguarda, R.C., and Zafonte, R. (2010). Continuous subcutaneous apomorphine for severe disorders of consciousness after traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 24: 636–641, https://doi.org/10.3109/02699051003610433.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Giacino, J.T., Ashwal, S., Childs, N., Cranford, R., Jennett, B., Katz, D.I., Kelly, J.P., Rosenberg, J.H., Whyte, J., Zafonte, R.D., et al.. (2002). The minimally conscious state: definition and diagnostic criteria. Neurology 58: 349–353, https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.58.3.349.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Giacino, J.T., Fins, J.J., Laureys, S., and Schiff, N.D. (2014). Disorders of consciousness after acquired brain injury: the state of the science. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 10: 99–114, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2013.279.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Giacino, J.T., Kalmar, K., and Whyte, J. (2004). The JFK Coma Recovery Scale-Revised: measurement characteristics and diagnostic utility. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 85: 2020–2029, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2004.02.033.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Giacino, J.T., Katz, D.I., Schiff, N.D., Whyte, J., Ashman, E.J., Ashwal, S., Barbano, R., Hammond, F.M., Laureys, S., Ling, G.S.F., et al.. (2018). Practice guideline update recommendations summary: disorders of consciousness: report of the guideline development, dissemination, and implementation subcommittee of the American academy of neurology; the American congress of rehabilitation medicine; and the national institute on disability, independent living, and rehabilitation research. Neurology 91: 450–460, https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0000000000005926.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Giacino, J.T., Whyte, J., Bagiella, E., Kalmar, K., Childs, N., Khademi, A., Eifert, B., Long, D., Katz, D.I., Cho, S., et al. (2012). Placebo-controlled trial of amantadine for severe traumatic brain injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 366: 819–826, https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1102609.Search in Google Scholar

Golkowski, D., Merz, K., Mlynarcik, C., Kiel, T., Schorr, B., Lopez-Rolon, A., Lukas, M., Jordan, D., Bender, A., and Ilg, R. (2017). Simultaneous EEG-PET-fMRI measurements in disorders of consciousness: an exploratory study on diagnosis and prognosis. J. Neurol. 264: 1986–1995, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-017-8591-z.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Gonzalez-Lara, L.E., Munce, S., Christian, J., Owen, A.M., Weijer, C., and Webster, F. (2021). The multiplicity of caregiving burden: a qualitative analysis of families with prolonged disorders of consciousness. Brain Inj. 35: 200–208, https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2020.1865565.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Goyal, A., Failla, M.D., Niyonkuru, C., Amin, K., Fabio, A., Berger, R.P., and Wagner, A.K. (2013). S100b as a prognostic biomarker in outcome prediction for patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma 30: 946–957, https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2012.2579.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Guo, K., Zhang, Q., Quan, Z., Wang, Y., Ma, T., Jiang, J., Kang, F., and Wang, J. (2024). Whole-brain glucose metabolic pattern differentiates minimally conscious state from unresponsive wakefulness syndrome. CNS Neurosci. Ther. 30: e14787, https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.14787.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

He, Q., Li, T., Xiong, Y., Xia, X., Dang, Y., Chen, X., Geng, X., He, J., Yang, Y., and Zhao, J. (2022). Elevated cerebrospinal fluid protein levels associated with poor short-term outcomes after spinal cord stimulation in patients with disorders of consciousness. Front. Aging Neurosci. 14: 1032740, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.1032740.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

He, J., Zhang, H., Dang, Y., Zhuang, Y., Ge, Q., Yang, Y., Xu, L., Xia, X., Laureys, S., Yu, S., et al.. (2023). Electrophysiological characteristics of CM-pf in diagnosis and outcome of patients with disorders of consciousness. Brain Stimul. 16: 1522–1532, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2023.09.021.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Hermann, B., Salah, A.B., Perlbarg, V., Valente, M., Pyatigorskaya, N., Habert, M.O., Raimondo, F., Stender, J., Galanaud, D., Kas, A., et al.. (2020). Habituation of auditory startle reflex is a new sign of minimally conscious state. Brain 143: 2154–2172, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awaa159.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Hermann, B., Stender, J., Habert, M.O., Kas, A., Denis-Valente, M., Raimondo, F., Pérez, P., Rohaut, B., Sitt, J.D., and Naccache, L. (2021). Multimodal FDG-PET and EEG assessment improves diagnosis and prognostication of disorders of consciousness. Neuroimage Clin. 30: 102601, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102601.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Jöhr, J., Halimi, F., Pasquier, J., Pincherle, A., Schiff, N., and Diserens, K. (2020). Recovery in cognitive motor dissociation after severe brain injury: a cohort study. PLoS One 15: e0228474, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228474.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Kang, X.G., Li, L., Wei, D., Xu, X.X., Zhao, R., Jing, Y.Y., Su, Y.Y., Xiong, L.Z., Zhao, G., and Jiang, W. (2014). Development of a simple score to predict outcome for unresponsive wakefulness syndrome. Crit. Care 18: R37, https://doi.org/10.1186/cc13745.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Kang, J., Zhong, Y., Chen, G., Huang, L., Tang, Y., Ye, W., and Feng, Z. (2022). Development and validation of a website to guide decision-making for disorders of consciousness. Front. Aging Neurosci. 14: 934283, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.934283.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Kellermann, I., Kleindienst, A., Hore, N., Buchfelder, M., and Brandner, S. (2016). Early CSF and serum S100B concentrations for outcome prediction in traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 145: 79–83, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2016.04.005.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Kleindienst, A. and Ross Bullock, M. (2006). A critical analysis of the role of the neurotrophic protein S100B in acute brain injury. J. Neurotrauma 23: 1185–1200, https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2006.23.1185.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Kotchoubey, B., Lang, S., Mezger, G., Schmalohr, D., Schneck, M., Semmler, A., Bostanov, V., and Birbaumer, N. (2005). Information processing in severe disorders of consciousness: vegetative state and minimally conscious state. Clin. Neurophysiol. 116: 2441–2453, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2005.03.028.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Laureys, S., Celesia, G.G., Cohadon, F., Lavrijsen, J., León-Carrión, J., Sannita, W.G., Sazbon, L., Schmutzhard, E., von Wild, K.R., Zeman, A., et al.. (2010). Unresponsive wakefulness syndrome: a new name for the vegetative state or apallic syndrome. BMC Med. 8: 68, https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-68.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Lei, J., Wang, L., Gao, G., Cooper, E., and Jiang, J. (2015). Right median nerve electrical stimulation for acute traumatic coma patients. J. Neurotrauma 32: 1584–1589, https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3768.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Li, L., Kang, X.G., Qi, S., Xu, X.X., Xiong, L.Z., Zhao, G., Yin, H., and Jiang, W. (2015). Brain response to thermal stimulation predicts outcome of patients with chronic disorders of consciousness. Clin. Neurophysiol. 126: 1539–1547, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2014.10.148.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Ling, Y., Wen, X., Tang, J., Tao, Z., Sun, L., Xin, H., and Luo, B. (2024). Effect of topographic comparison of electroencephalographic microstates on the diagnosis and prognosis prediction of patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness. CNS Neurosci. Ther. 30: e14421, https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.14421.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Liu, Y., Huang, H., Su, Y., Wang, M., Zhang, Y., Chen, W., Liu, G., and Jiang, M. (2022). The combination of N60 with mismatch negativity improves the prediction of awakening from coma. Neurocrit. Care 36: 727–737, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-021-01308-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Liu, X., Li, J., Gao, J., Zhou, Z., Meng, F., Pan, G., and Luo, B. (2017). Association of medial prefrontal cortex connectivity with consciousness level and its outcome in patients with acquired brain injury. J. Clin. Neurosci. 42: 160–166, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2017.04.015.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Ma, H., Fan, S., Xu, Z., Wan, X., Yang, Q., Yin, Y., Wu, X., Wu, S., Zhang, H., and Ma, C. (2023). Trigeminal nerve stimulation for prolonged disorders of consciousness: a randomized double-blind sham-controlled study. Brain Stimul. 16: 819–827, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2023.05.002.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Mat, B., Sanz, L.R.D., Arzi, A., Boly, M., Laureys, S., and Gosseries, O. (2022). New behavioral signs of consciousness in patients with severe brain injuries. Semin. Neurol. 42: 259–272, https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1883-0861.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

McNett, M., Amato, S., Gianakis, A., Grimm, D., Philippbar, S.A., Belle, J., and Moran, C. (2014). The FOUR score and GCS as predictors of outcome after traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit. Care 21: 52–57, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-013-9947-6.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Monti, M.M., Schnakers, C., Korb, A.S., Bystritsky, A., and Vespa, P.M. (2016). Non-invasive ultrasonic thalamic stimulation in disorders of consciousness after severe brain injury: a first-in-man report. Brain Stimul. 9: 940–941, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2016.07.008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Nardone, R., Sebastianelli, L., Brigo, F., Golaszewski, S., Trinka, E., Pucks-Faes, E., Saltuari, L., and Versace, V. (2020). Effects of intrathecal baclofen therapy in subjects with disorders of consciousness: a reappraisal. J. Neural. Transm. (Vienna) 127: 1209–1215, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-020-02233-8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

O’Neal, C.M., Schroeder, L.N., Wells, A.A., Chen, S., Stephens, T.M., Glenn, C.A., and Conner, A.K. (2021). Patient outcomes in disorders of consciousness following transcranial magnetic stimulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Front. Neurol. 12: 694970, https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.694970.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Pincherle, A., Jöhr, J., Chatelle, C., Pignat, J.M., Du Pasquier, R., Ryvlin, P., Oddo, M., and Diserens, K. (2019). Motor behavior unmasks residual cognition in disorders of consciousness. Ann. Neurol. 85: 443–447, https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25417.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Pistoia, F., Mura, E., Govoni, S., Fini, M., and Sarà, M. (2010). Awakenings and awareness recovery in disorders of consciousness: is there a role for drugs? CNS Drugs 24: 625–638, https://doi.org/10.2165/11535940-000000000-00000.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Portaccio, E., Morrocchesi, A., Romoli, A.M., Hakiki, B., Taglioli, M.P., Lippi, E., Di Renzone, M., Grippo, A., Macchi, C., Atzori, T., et al.. (2018). Improvement on the coma recovery scale-revised during the first four weeks of hospital stay predicts outcome at discharge in intensive rehabilitation after severe brain injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 99: 914–919, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2018.01.015.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

PVS, M.S.T.F.O. (1994). Medical aspects of the persistent vegetative state (1). N. Engl. J. Med. 330: 1499–1508, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199405263302107.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Qin, P., Di, H., Liu, Y., Yu, S., Gong, Q., Duncan, N., Weng, X., Laureys, S., and Northoff, G. (2010). Anterior cingulate activity and the self in disorders of consciousness. Hum. Brain Mapp. 31: 1993–2002, https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20989.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Qin, P., Wu, X., Duncan, N.W., Bao, W., Tang, W., Zhang, Z., Hu, J., Jin, Y., Wu, X., Gao, L., et al.. (2015). GABAA receptor deficits predict recovery in patients with disorders of consciousness: a preliminary multimodal [(11) C]Flumazenil PET and fMRI study. Hum. Brain Mapp. 36: 3867–3877, https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22883.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Sarà, M., Pistoia, F., Pasqualetti, P., Sebastiano, F., Onorati, P., and Rossini, P.M. (2011). Functional isolation within the cerebral cortex in the vegetative state: a nonlinear method to predict clinical outcomes. Neurorehabilitation Neural Repair 25: 35–42, https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968310378508.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Schiff, N.D., Giacino, J.T., Kalmar, K., Victor, J.D., Baker, K., Gerber, M., Fritz, B., Eisenberg, B., Biondi, T., O’Connor, J., et al.. (2007). Behavioural improvements with thalamic stimulation after severe traumatic brain injury. Nature 448: 600–603, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06041.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Schiff, L., Hadker, N., Weiser, S., and Rausch, C. (2012). A literature review of the feasibility of glial fibrillary acidic protein as a biomarker for stroke and traumatic brain injury. Mol. Diagn. Ther. 16: 79–92, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03256432.Search in Google Scholar

Schnakers, C., Ledoux, D., Majerus, S., Damas, P., Damas, F., Lambermont, B., Lamy, M., Boly, M., Vanhaudenhuyse, A., Moonen, G., et al.. (2008). Diagnostic and prognostic use of bispectral index in coma, vegetative state and related disorders. Brain Inj. 22: 926–931, https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050802530565.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Schorr, B., Schlee, W., Arndt, M., and Bender, A. (2016). Coherence in resting-state EEG as a predictor for the recovery from unresponsive wakefulness syndrome. J. Neurol. 263: 937–953, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-016-8084-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Sidaros, A., Engberg, A.W., Sidaros, K., Liptrot, M.G., Herning, M., Petersen, P., Paulson, O.B., Jernigan, T.L., and Rostrup, E. (2008). Diffusion tensor imaging during recovery from severe traumatic brain injury and relation to clinical outcome: a longitudinal study. Brain 131: 559–572, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awm294.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Sitt, J.D., King, J.R., El Karoui, I., Rohaut, B., Faugeras, F., Gramfort, A., Cohen, L., Sigman, M., Dehaene, S., and Naccache, L. (2014). Large scale screening of neural signatures of consciousness in patients in a vegetative or minimally conscious state. Brain 137: 2258–2270, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu141.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Song, M., Yang, Y., He, J., Yang, Z., Yu, S., Xie, Q., Xia, X., Dang, Y., Zhang, Q., Wu, X., et al.. (2018). Prognostication of chronic disorders of consciousness using brain functional networks and clinical characteristics. Elife 7, https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.36173.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Spataro, R., Heilinger, A., Allison, B., De Cicco, D., Marchese, S., Gregoretti, C., La Bella, V., and Guger, C. (2018). Preserved somatosensory discrimination predicts consciousness recovery in unresponsive wakefulness syndrome. Clin. Neurophysiol. 129: 1130–1136, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2018.02.131.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Stefan, S., Schorr, B., Lopez-Rolon, A., Kolassa, I.T., Shock, J.P., Rosenfelder, M., Heck, S., and Bender, A. (2018). Consciousness indexing and outcome prediction with resting-state EEG in severe disorders of consciousness. Brain Topogr. 31: 848–862, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10548-018-0643-x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Stender, J., Gosseries, O., Bruno, M.A., Charland-Verville, V., Vanhaudenhuyse, A., Demertzi, A., Chatelle, C., Thonnard, M., Thibaut, A., Heine, L., et al.. (2014). Diagnostic precision of PET imaging and functional MRI in disorders of consciousness: a clinical validation study. Lancet 384: 514–522, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(14)60042-8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Stender, J., Mortensen, K.N., Thibaut, A., Darkner, S., Laureys, S., Gjedde, A., and Kupers, R. (2016). The minimal energetic requirement of sustained awareness after brain injury. Curr. Biol. 26: 1494–1499, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.04.024.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Steppacher, I., Eickhoff, S., Jordanov, T., Kaps, M., Witzke, W., and Kissler, J. (2013). N400 predicts recovery from disorders of consciousness. Ann. Neurol. 73: 594–602, https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.23835.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Strauss, D.J., Ashwal, S., Day, S.M., and Shavelle, R.M. (2000). Life expectancy of children in vegetative and minimally conscious states. Pediatr. Neurol. 23: 312–319, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0887-8994(00)00194-6.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Thibaut, A., Fregni, F., Estraneo, A., Fiorenza, S., Noe, E., Llorens, R., Ferri, J., Formisano, R., Morone, G., Bender, A., et al.. (2023). Sham-controlled randomized multicentre trial of transcranial direct current stimulation for prolonged disorders of consciousness. Eur. J. Neurol. 30: 3016–3031, https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.15974.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Tölli, A., Höybye, C., Bellander, B.M., and Borg, J. (2019). Impact of pituitary dysfunction on cognitive and global outcome after traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. J. Rehabil. Med. 51: 264–272, https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-2531.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Vogel, D., Markl, A., Yu, T., Kotchoubey, B., Lang, S., and Müller, F. (2013). Can mental imagery functional magnetic resonance imaging predict recovery in patients with disorders of consciousness? Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 94: 1891–1898, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2012.11.053.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Wang, F., Di, H., Hu, X., Jing, S., Thibaut, A., Di Perri, C., Huang, W., Nie, Y., Schnakers, C., and Laureys, S. (2015). Cerebral response to subject’s own name showed high prognostic value in traumatic vegetative state. BMC Med. 13: 83, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0330-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Wang, Y., Niu, Z., Xia, X., Bai, Y., Liang, Z., He, J., and Li, X. (2022). Application of fast perturbational complexity index to the diagnosis and prognosis for disorders of consciousness. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 30: 509–518, https://doi.org/10.1109/tnsre.2022.3154772.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Wannez, S., Heine, L., Thonnard, M., Gosseries, O., and Laureys, S. (2017). The repetition of behavioral assessments in diagnosis of disorders of consciousness. Ann. Neurol. 81: 883–889, https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24962.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Whyte, J. and Myers, R. (2009). Incidence of clinically significant responses to zolpidem among patients with disorders of consciousness: a preliminary placebo controlled trial. Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 88: 410–418, https://doi.org/10.1097/phm.0b013e3181a0e3a0.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Whyte, J., Rajan, R., Rosenbaum, A., Katz, D., Kalmar, K., Seel, R., Greenwald, B., Zafonte, R., Demarest, D., Brunner, R., et al.. (2014). Zolpidem and restoration of consciousness. Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 93: 101–113, https://doi.org/10.1097/phm.0000000000000069.Search in Google Scholar

Wijnen, V.J., Eilander, H.J., de Gelder, B., and van Boxtel, G.J. (2014). Visual processing during recovery from vegetative state to consciousness: comparing behavioral indices to brain responses. Neurophysiol. Clin. 44: 457–469, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucli.2014.08.008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Wilde, E.A., Ayoub, K.W., Bigler, E.D., Chu, Z.D., Hunter, J.V., Wu, T.C., McCauley, S.R., and Levin, H.S. (2012). Diffusion tensor imaging in moderate-to-severe pediatric traumatic brain injury: changes within an 18 month post-injury interval. Brain Imaging Behav. 6: 404–416, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-012-9150-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Williams, S.T., Conte, M.M., Goldfine, A.M., Noirhomme, Q., Gosseries, O., Thonnard, M., Beattie, B., Hersh, J., Katz, D.I., Victor, J.D., et al.. (2013). Common resting brain dynamics indicate a possible mechanism underlying zolpidem response in severe brain injury. Elife 2: e01157, https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.01157.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Wu, M., Luo, B., Yu, Y., Li, X., Gao, J., Li, J., Sorger, B., and Riecke, L. (2022). Rhythmic musical-electrical trigeminal nerve stimulation improves impaired consciousness. Neuroimage Clin. 36: 103170, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103170.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Wu, X., Zou, Q., Hu, J., Tang, W., Mao, Y., Gao, L., Zhu, J., Jin, Y., Wu, X., Lu, L., et al.. (2015). Intrinsic functional connectivity patterns predict consciousness level and recovery outcome in acquired brain injury. J. Neurosci. 35: 12932–12946, https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.0415-15.2015.Search in Google Scholar

Xu, L., Ge, Q., Lu, H., Zhuang, Y., Geng, X., Chen, X., Liu, X., Sun, H., Guo, Z., Sun, J., et al.. (2023). Cerebrospinal fluid metabolite alterations in patients with different etiologies, diagnoses, and prognoses of disorders of consciousness. Brain Behav. 13: e3070, https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.3070.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Xu, W., Jiang, G., Chen, Y., Wang, X., and Jiang, X. (2012). Prediction of minimally conscious state with somatosensory evoked potentials in long-term unconscious patients after traumatic brain injury. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 72: 1024–1029, https://doi.org/10.1097/ta.0b013e31824475cc.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Yamaki, T., Hatakeyama, N., Murayama, T., Funakura, M., Hara, T., Onodera, S., Ito, D., Yakufujiang, M., Odaki, M., Oka, N., et al.. (2023). Prediction of voluntary movements of the upper extremities by resting state-brain regional glucose metabolism in patients with chronic severe brain injury: a pilot study. Hum. Brain Mapp. 44: 3158–3167, https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.26270.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Yang, Y., He, Q., Dang, Y., Xia, X., Xu, X., Chen, X., Zhao, J., and He, J. (2023). Long-term functional outcomes improved with deep brain stimulation in patients with disorders of consciousness. Stroke Vasc. Neurol. 8: 368–378, https://doi.org/10.1136/svn-2022-001998.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Yu, Y., Meng, F., Zhang, L., Liu, X., Wu, Y., Chen, S., Tan, X., Li, X., Kuang, S., Sun, Y., et al.. (2021a). A multi-domain prognostic model of disorder of consciousness using resting-state fMRI and laboratory parameters. Brain Imaging Behav. 15: 1966–1976, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-020-00390-8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Yu, J., Wu, Y., Wu, B., Xu, C., Cai, J., Wen, X., Meng, F., Zhang, L., He, F., Hong, L., et al.. (2022). Sleep patterns correlates with the efficacy of tDCS on post-stroke patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness. J. Transl. Med. 20: 601, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-022-03710-2.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Yu, Y., Yang, Y., Gan, S., Guo, S., Fang, J., Wang, S., Tang, C., Bai, L., He, J., and Rong, P. (2021b). Cerebral hemodynamic correlates of transcutaneous auricular vagal nerve stimulation in consciousness restoration: an open-label pilot study. Front. Neurol. 12: 684791, https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.684791.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Zhang, J., Wei, R.L., Peng, G.P., Zhou, J.J., Wu, M., He, F.P., Pan, G., Gao, J., and Luo, B.Y. (2017). Correlations between diffusion tensor imaging and levels of consciousness in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep. 7: 2793, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-02950-3.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Zhang, Y., Yang, Y., Si, J., Xia, X., He, J., and Jiang, T. (2018). Influence of inter-stimulus interval of spinal cord stimulation in patients with disorders of consciousness: a preliminary functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. Neuroimage Clin. 17: 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2017.09.017.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Zheng, X., Chen, M., Li, J., and Cao, F. (2013). Prognosis in prolonged coma patients with diffuse axonal injury assessed by somatosensory evoked potentia. Neural Regen. Res. 8: 948–954, https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.10.010.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central