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Harnessing 1D TiO2 nanostructures: insights into synthesis, properties and photocatalytic applications for pollution control

  • Jyoti Rawat ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Charu Dwivedi ORCID logo EMAIL logo and Pankaj Sharma ORCID logo EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: April 22, 2025
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Reviews in Inorganic Chemistry
From the journal Reviews in Inorganic Chemistry

Abstract

This review explores the development of one dimensional TiO2 nanostructures, which have garnered significant attention due to their exceptional structural and functional properties. Additionally, it provides valuable insights into the synthesis of one dimensional TiO2 nanostructures with controlled size, morphology, composition, and properties, as well as their photocatalytic applications for pollution control, compared to zero dimensional and two dimensional structures. Furthermore, the review places particular emphasis on their role in environmental remediation, especially in the photocatalytic degradation of both air and aqueous pollutants. It highlights the transformative potential of these nanomaterials in addressing pressing environmental challenges and advancing future technologies.

Keywords: nanomaterials; top-down; bottom-up; TiO2 nanostructures; environmental remediation

1 Introduction

The rapid transformation of industries and the global economy over the past century has introduced significant challenges. The increasing reliance on fossil fuels has accelerated global warming and climate change, while also contributing to environmental pollution. 1 This situation highlights the urgent need for clean energy sourced from renewables and effective methods for pollutant degradation. 2 Solar energy, particularly through photocatalysis, presents a compelling opportunity for breaking down organic pollutants, generating hydrogen via water splitting, and converting CO2 into renewable hydrocarbon fuels. 3 Furthermore, innovations like supercapacitors and solar cells are emerging as essential tools in combating resource depletion, offering sustainable solutions to both environmental degradation and the energy crisis. 4

TiO2 is a widely studied semiconductor known for its high stability, non-toxicity, and strong photocatalytic activity under ultraviolet (UV) light. Its three primary crystalline forms anatase, rutile, and brookite-exhibit different electronic and optical properties. 5 Among these, anatase TiO2 is particularly promising for photocatalytic applications because of its superior electron-hole pair separation, which is essential for efficient photocatalytic reactions. 6 The dimensionality of TiO2 nanostructures significantly influences their electronic and optical behaviors; thus, fabricating them in a one dimensional (1D) format can lead to enhanced properties compared to their bulk counterparts. 7

1D TiO2 nanostructures, such as nanorods (NRs), nanotubes (NTs), nanobelts (NBs), nanofiber (NFs) and nanowires (NWs), exhibit superior properties compared to their bulk materials due to their increased surface area-to-volume ratio and unique optical and electronic characteristics. 8 The 1D nanostructure also promotes better charge carrier mobility compared to bulk TiO2, making it especially beneficial for applications such as photocatalysis, sensors, and energy storage. 9 Additionally, 1D TiO2 often shows increased photocatalytic activity because of its ability to facilitate faster electron-hole pair separation, which is crucial for efficient light absorption and reaction processes. The high surface area of 1D TiO2 materials can also enhance interactions with molecules, contributing to their superior catalytic performance. 10

These 1D nanostructures of TiO2 offer a higher surface area and enhanced light absorption compared to their bulk counterparts, making them highly efficient for environmental remediation processes. One of the most notable applications of 1D TiO2 is in the degradation of organic pollutants in water. When exposed to UV light, TiO2 generates electron-hole pairs that can break down harmful contaminants such as dyes, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals, converting them into less toxic substances. 11 Additionally, the high surface-to-volume ratio of 1D TiO2 structures facilitates a more efficient interaction with pollutants, enhancing the degradation rate and ensuring a more sustainable and effective treatment process. 12 Beyond water purification, 1D TiO2 has also been applied in air pollution control. TiO2 based photocatalysts can be used to remove harmful gaseous compounds like nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the atmosphere. The photocatalytic oxidation of these pollutants under UV light not only breaks them down but also converts them into less harmful substances like carbon dioxide and water vapor. 13 Furthermore, the robust stability and recyclability of 1D TiO2 materials allow for long-term environmental applications with minimal degradation over time. As a result, 1D TiO2 structures are emerging as promising materials for sustainable environmental technologies, offering a solution to some of the most pressing challenges related to pollution control and resource management. 14

In contrast, two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional (3D) forms of TiO2 exhibit different properties due to their varying dimensionality. 2D TiO2, such as nanosheets (NSs) or thin films, offers excellent charge transport and mechanical flexibility, making it suitable for applications in flexible electronics and optoelectronics. 15 The reduced dimensionality in 2D materials leads to distinct quantum effects and can also enhance photocatalytic performance, especially in terms of light absorption and surface interaction. 16 Meanwhile, 3D TiO2, typically in the form of bulk particles or crystals, possesses the most conventional properties in terms of mechanical strength and stability but lacks the enhanced surface area or charge transport capabilities seen in the 1D and 2D counterparts. The increased dimensionality in 3D TiO2 can also reduce its efficiency in photocatalytic and energy conversion applications due to slower electron transfer rates and the difficulty of light penetration. 17

In recent years, significant advancements have been made in the synthesis, modification, and applications of 1D TiO2 nanostructured materials. Ratanatawanate et al. successfully synthesized TiO2 NTs integrated with PbS quantum dots (QDs) using thiolactic acid. The process involved applying an initial layer of a double-chain cationic surfactant to the TiO2 NTs, and the resulting PbS QDs proved effective for photocatalytic degradation. 11 Zhang et al. synthesized a ZnO NRs based platform that synergizes gas sensing, optoelectronic, and photocatalytic capabilities. Their experiments, combined with first-principles DFT calculations, revealed the impact of surface structure and oxygen vacancies on the (100) facets. The small diameter and high density of the ZnO array enhanced surface area and adsorption, boosting visible light absorption. 18 Bai and his team successfully recycled graphite target waste into 2D few-layer graphite for creating nanoscale photocatalysts. The resulting photocatalyst showed a 19 % improvement in efficiency and enhanced photostability for sunlight-driven degradation of organic pollutants. They also examined how temperature and pH affect photocatalytic degradation performance. 19 Su et al. developed a sensing-transducing strategy by incorporating high-piezoresponse Sm-PMNPT ceramic (d33 = 1,500 pC/N) into a moisture-sensitive polyetherimide (PEI) matrix through electrospinning. This enabled simultaneous humidity sensing and signal transduction. The resulting STP textile can be worn on the body for emotion detection, exercise monitoring, and stress identification. 20 Huang et al. developed a degradable multilayer fabric (DMF) made of ellipsoidal carbon nanotubes (ECNT) and polyvinylpyrrolidone/cellulose acetate electrospun fibers (PEF). The optimized device showed a sensitivity of 3.38 kPa−1 across a range of 0.1–500 kPa and maintained mechanical stability over 2000 cycles. This work deepens the understanding of mechanical interfacial coupling in piezoresistive materials, offering new opportunities for wearable electronics design. 21 Luo et al. developed a PZT-CNT/PVDF composite for infrared sensing and noncontact human-machine interfacing. The 3 wt% CNT doping improved proximity sensitivity by 55.78 % and infrared detection by 13.97 %, offering new potential for high-performance, self-powered sensors. 22 Huang’s team developed a PZT-CNT/PVDF composite for infrared sensing and noncontact HMI. With 3 wt% CNT doping, it achieved optimal sensitivity and infrared detection, improving performance by 13.97 % over the undoped version. This work advances high-performance, self-powered sensors. 23

The unique characteristics of 1D TiO2 nanostructures contribute to their diverse range of applications. In photocatalysis, they are utilized for the degradation of organic pollutants, water splitting for hydrogen production, and carbon dioxide reduction, all of which are critical for environmental remediation and energy conversion. 14 Additionally, their high surface area and conductivity make them suitable for energy storage applications, such as in supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries, where fast charge-discharge rates are essential. Moreover, 1D TiO2 nanostructures have shown potential in sensing applications, where their sensitivity to changes in environmental conditions can be harnessed for detecting gases and other analytes. 15 Continued research and innovation in synthesis techniques and material design are crucial to overcoming these hurdles and fully realizing the potential of 1D TiO2 nanostructures in practical applications. 14

This review provides a comprehensive discussion on 1D TiO2 nanostructures, which represent a fascinating area of study in nanotechnology, combining unique properties with a broad spectrum of applications. Their potential to revolutionize fields such as environmental science, energy, and electronics makes them a key focus for researchers and industry alike. As advancements continue in their synthesis and application, 1D TiO2 nanostructures are poised to play a significant role in addressing some of the most pressing challenges of our time, paving the way for a more sustainable future.

2 Synthesis of 1D TiO2 nanostructures with various approaches

Nanomaterial synthesis methods are divided into two main approaches: top-down and bottom-up (Figure 1). This section provides a concise overview of key preparation methods, including top-down approaches and bottom-up methods such as the hydrothermal method, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and the sol-gel method, which will be discussed in more detail in the following section (Tables 1 and 2).

Figure 1: A systematic diagram of top-down and bottom-up techniques for nanostructures.
Figure 1:

A systematic diagram of top-down and bottom-up techniques for nanostructures.

Table 1:

Top-down approaches for the synthesis of 1D nanostructures.

S.No. 1D nanostructures Synthesis method Size (nm) Reference
1. TiO2 nanotubes Photolithography method 38.5–53.9 [ 24
2. TiO2 nanotubes Photolithography method 14–17 [ 25
3. TiO2 nanowires Electron Beam lithography 100 [ 26
4. TiO2 nanotubes Thermal evaporation 90 [ 27
5. TiO2 nanowires Thermal evaporation 60–90 [ 28
6. ZnO nanorods Thermal evaporation 50 [ 29
7. ZnS nanobelts Thermal evaporation 100 [ 30
8.  TiO2 nanotubes Lithography method 32 [ 31
9. TiO2 nanowires Photolithography method 90 to 180 [ 32
10. ZnO nanowires Electron-beam-lithography 10 [ 33
11. TiO2 nanorods Thermal evaporation 70–150 [ 34
12. TiO2 nanotubes Photolithography method 30 [ 35
13. TiO2 nanowires Thermal evaporation 70–150 [ 36
14. ZnO nanorods Thermal evaporation 50 [ 37
15. ZnO nanorods Thermal evaporation 300–350 [ 38
Table 2:

Bottom-up approaches for the synthesis of 1D nanostructures.

S.No. 1D nanostructures Synthesis method Size (nm) Reference
1. TiO2 nanobelts Hydrothermal method 7–8 [ 39
2. TiO2 spherical Sol-gel method 10 [ 40
3. TiO2 nanotubes Hydrothermal method 6 [ 41
4. TiO2 nanorods Chemical vapor deposition 10 [ 42
5. TiO2 nanobelts Chemical vapor deposition 10–20 [ 43
6. SnO2 nanorods Hydrothermal method 4–15 [ 44
7. MnV2O6 nanorods Hydrothermal method 20–30 [ 45
8. Si nanowires Chemical vapor deposition 3 [ 46
9. TiO2 nanowires Hydrothermal process 50 [ 47
10. TiO2 nanowire Chemical vapor deposition 30 [ 48
11. TiO2 nanowires Sol-gel method 20 [ 49
12. Ag/TiO2 nanowires Sol-gel method 70 [ 50
13. Ag2S QDs decorated TiO2 nanotubes Hydrothermal method 0.53 [ 51
14. CdSe incorporated TiO2 nanotubes Hydrothermal method 0.35 [ 52
15. TiO2 nanotubes Chemical vapor deposition 25 [ 53

Top-down approaches for fabricating 1D TiO2 nanostructures involve the sequential reduction of bulk materials to achieve desired nanoscale features. Common techniques include lithography, where patterns are etched onto a substrate to define the nanostructures, followed by processes like etching or milling to remove unwanted material. 54 Another method is the use of templates, where bulk TiO2 is shaped into NFs or NRs through methods like electrospinning or sol-gel processes, which create porous structures that can be further refined (Table 1). Additionally, mechanical methods such as grinding or ball milling can be employed to break down larger TiO2 NPs into nanostructured forms. These approaches allow for precise control over the dimensions and morphology of the TiO2 nanostructures, enabling their integration into various applications such as photocatalysis, sensors, and energy storage devices. 55

Bottom-up approaches in nanotechnology focus on the assembly or synthesis of nanoscale structures from smaller components, often at the molecular or atomic level. A common method is sol-gel synthesis, where titanium precursors are transformed into a gel and subsequently heated to produce TiO2 NTs. Hydrothermal and solvothermal methods also allow for the growth of TiO2 nanostructures by controlling temperature and pressure in a solvent, facilitating the formation of well-defined NWs or NRs. 56 Another technique is CVD, which enables the deposition of TiO2 films that can be further processed into 1D nanostructures (Table 2). These bottom-up methods provide advantages such as greater uniformity, the ability to control composition and morphology, and the potential for producing complex nanostructures. Bottom-up strategies are essential in advancing nanotechnology, facilitating innovations in nanoelectronics, nanomedicine, and other fields by leveraging the inherent characteristics of small-scale components to create functional and customized nano systems. 18 , 19

Wang et al. focus on 1D TiO2 nanostructures, specifically NWs, NRs, and NTs, examining their structure, growth mechanisms, synthesis methods, properties, and applications, particularly in energy-related fields. This review covers the structural features of TiO2 polymorphs and the 1D growth mechanisms, such as oriented attachment and surface-reaction-limited growth. It also discusses various synthetic methods, including solution-based, vapor deposition, templated growth, and top-down fabrication. The strengths and limitations of each method are highlighted, with a focus on how TiO2 NWs can improve solar energy conversion efficiency in photovoltaic and photoelectrochemical systems. Additionally, the review explores their potential in energy storage, electrochromism, sensing, and mechanical applications. The article emphasizes the need for reliable, scalable synthesis methods and a deeper understanding of the relationship between 1D morphology, crystal structure, and material properties to enable better integration with other functional materials in advanced device systems. 57

2.1 Top-down approach

Top-down approaches in nanotechnology involve the fabrication or manipulation of nanoscale structures by breaking down or carving out larger materials. These methods start with bulk materials and use various techniques to reduce them to the desired size Lithography techniques are essential for the precise fabrication of 1D TiO2 nanostructures, which are crucial for applications in fields such as electronics, sensors, and catalysis. 18 Traditional photolithography, although widely used, typically faces limitations when creating ultra-small features due to the diffraction limits of light. However, advancements in electron beam lithography (EBL) and X-ray lithography (XRL) have enabled the creation of high-resolution 1D TiO2 structures. These methods allow for the direct writing of intricate patterns, making them suitable for fabricating nanostructures with superior control over dimensions and alignment. 20

EBL offers a significant advantage in terms of resolution, achieving feature sizes down to the nanometer scale. In this process, a focused electron beam is used to expose a resist material, allowing for the precise patterning of 1D TiO2 nanostructures. The high-resolution capabilities of EBL are particularly beneficial when fabricating TiO2 NWs and NTs, which require precise control over their diameter and length. 54 Additionally, EBL enables the production of complex and custom geometries, which is critical for advancing applications in nanoelectronics and photonic devices. However, it is a slower process compared to photolithography, making it more suitable for research and small-scale production. 55

XRL, on the other hand, provides several advantages for large-scale manufacturing of 1D TiO2 structures due to its ability to pattern with finer details than conventional optical lithography. XRL employs high-energy X-rays to expose a photosensitive resist material, enabling the creation of highly intricate and deep structures. 58 This method is particularly advantageous for creating deep, vertical TiO2 nanostructures, as the X-rays can penetrate thicker resist layers without significant loss of resolution. The high aspect ratios achievable with XRL make it an ideal technique for producing 1D TiO2 nanostructures with enhanced mechanical strength and stability, which are important for various industrial applications such as photocatalysis and energy storage. 59 Despite its advantages, XRL requires specialized equipment and is typically more costly than other lithographic methods. Nonetheless, it remains a powerful tool for the fabrication of high-precision 1D TiO2 nanostructures, especially when scalability and feature depth are key considerations. 54

2.1.1 Photolithography

Photolithography is a crucial process used in semiconductor manufacturing and microfabrication, where patterns are transferred onto a substrate, typically silicon, to create intricate circuit designs. The process begins with the application of a light-sensitive photoresist material on the substrate. A patterned mask is then used to expose specific areas of the photoresist to UV light, causing chemical changes in the exposed regions. 58 After developing the photoresist, unwanted areas are washed away, leaving a precise pattern that can be further processed through etching or deposition methods. This technique enables the fabrication of complex electronic components at micro and nanoscale levels, driving advancements in technology and the miniaturization of devices. 59

Y.S. Kim et al. have proposed a novel soft lithography technique that does not require polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). This approach utilizes a mold made from UV-curable polyurethane acrylate and incorporates water-soluble sulfonated polystyrene (SPS) in the soft molding process. To enhance adhesion, a multilayer deposition is performed between the substrate and the polymer layer. This method effectively addresses the issues related to PDMS molds, particularly their tendency to collapse laterally, enabling the successful transfer of well-organized polymeric nanostructures (80 nm wide and 400 nm tall) onto diverse substrates, including glass and flexible polymer films. 60 Liau et al. developed a photolithography technique using a polyvinyl butyral (PVB) and TiO2 composite, which involves UV exposure. This process facilitates the photodegradation of the robust PVB/TiO2 photoresist, allowing for the easy removal of TiO2 particles due to their lower mechanical strength. The successful formation of patterns on various substrates was demonstrated, and the study also analysed the surface morphology of the films with different exposure times. Additionally, they examined the dynamic intensities of functional groups during the photodegradation of PVB/TiO2. 61

2.1.2 Electron beam lithography

EBL is a high-resolution method for creating detailed micro and nanoscale patterns on a substrate using a focused electron beam. In this process, a substrate coated with an electron-sensitive resist material is exposed to the electron beam, which alters the chemical structure of the resist in the exposed areas. After exposure, the resist is developed, revealing precise patterns that can then be used for further fabrication processes, such as etching or metal deposition. 62 EBL is particularly valued for its ability to achieve feature sizes below 10 nm, making it essential in fields such as semiconductor manufacturing, nanotechnology, and materials research. Although EBL is slower compared to other lithographic methods, its unmatched resolution and flexibility in pattern design make it a powerful tool for creating complex devices and structures at the nanoscale. 63

F. Bretagnol et al. have created a two-step nanoscale writing method that enables the formation of bio-adhesive patterns on a non-bio-adhesive substrate. This nanofabrication process begins with the development of a plasma-derived polyethylene oxide film, which exhibits protein-repelling properties. Following this, electron beam lithography is used to construct nanoscale bio-adhesive patterns by modifying the density of ether bonds in the coating. 64 Burek et al. successfully fabricated arrays of vertical gold and copper nanopillars with diameters as small as 25 nm using electron beam lithography on polymethylmethacrylate. These nanopillars have a broad spectrum of potential applications, including sensing, field emission, and nanomedicine. 65

2.1.3 Thermal evaporation

Thermal evaporation is an endothermic process that relies on heat to induce chemical breakdown within materials, specifically by breaking chemical bonds in molecules. This technique is particularly favoured for producing stable, monodisperse suspensions capable of self-assembly, making it one of the most effective methods for synthesizing inorganic nanoparticles. The process involves depositing thin films onto a wide range of substrates, providing versatility in applications across various fields. 66 In a typical thermal evaporation setup, as illustrated in Figure 2, an alumina crucible containing the source material is placed centrally within the heating zone, with the untreated substrate positioned directly opposite the powder. The source material and substrate are heated using a resistive heating method, and a consistent distance of 20 cm is maintained between them to ensure uniform deposition. To facilitate precise control over deposition time, the entrance of the crucible is equipped with a shutter. Prior to the deposition process, glass slides are meticulously cleaned using a soap solution and then subjected to ultrasonic washing in acetone and de-ionized water to remove any contaminants. For the source materials, stoichiometric powders of each chemical, with a purity of 99.99 %, are employed individually within the crucibles to achieve optimal results. 66 , 67

Figure 2: A schematic drawing of thermal evaporation chamber setup.
Figure 2:

A schematic drawing of thermal evaporation chamber setup.

2.2 Bottom-up approach

2.2.1 Chemical vapor deposition

CVD is a versatile and widely used technique for producing thin films and coatings on various substrates through the chemical reaction of gaseous precursors. In this process, gases are added to a chamber, where they undergo chemical reactions that deposit solid material onto the substrate’s surface. 68 , 69 CVD is particularly valued in the semiconductor industry for its ability to create uniform, high-purity films with excellent conformality, making it ideal for applications like integrated circuits, photovoltaics, and protective coatings. 70 The ability to precisely control the film’s composition, thickness, and microstructure allows for the engineering of materials with specific properties tailored to diverse technological needs. 71 , 72

Chen et al. synthesized rutile TiO2 NRs using the CVD technique, with titanium tetraisopropoxide (TTIP) as the precursor. The deposition was carried out at 550 °C under oxygen pressures of 1.5 and 5 mbar. The resulting NRs exhibited increased density and uniform height. However, the high cost of the required equipment limits the practical application of this method, resulting in steep production expenses. 73 Du et al. successfully produced TiO2 NWs through the CVD technique, utilizing TiCl4 as the precursor (Figure 3). 74

Figure 3: Shows SEM images of nanowires (a), nanorods (b), and nanobelts (c) fabricated using the CVD method. 74 Copyright (2015), Journal of Crystal Growth.
Figure 3:

Shows SEM images of nanowires (a), nanorods (b), and nanobelts (c) fabricated using the CVD method. 74 Copyright (2015), Journal of Crystal Growth.

2.2.2 Solvothermal

The solvothermal method a widely used synthetic technique for producing nanostructured materials, involves the reaction of precursors in a solvent under elevated temperature and pressure conditions. This approach allows the controlled growth of materials such as nanoparticles, NWs, and thin films, often resulting in high purity and uniformity. 75 By adjusting parameters like pressure, solvent type, and reaction time, researchers can tailor the size, shape, and crystalline structure of the resulting materials, making it a versatile option for different applications in fields including catalysis, electronics, and photonics. The solvothermal method is particularly beneficial for synthesizing complex oxides and composite materials, enabling the incorporation of different elements and phases to enhance material properties. 76 , 77

Chen et al. synthesized a porous anatase TiO2 nanostructure using a solvothermal method with rod-like titanyl sulphate (Figure 4(a)). The resulting morphology was dependent on reaction time, the form of titanyl sulphate, and the type of solvent. 78 He et al. developed nitrogen-fluorine co-doped TiO2 NBs (Figure 4(b)) from amorphous titania microspheres, showing improved photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange. 79 Zhao and colleagues created TiO2 NRs arrays on FTO glass (Figure 4(c)) through solvothermal methods and thermal treatments, observing a surface transformation that increased photoelectric conversion efficiency by 39 % in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC), indicating the potential of solvothermal method in the photoelectrical applications. 80

Figure 4: SEM images of (a) nanosheets 78 copyright (2010), John Wiley and Sons, (b) nanobelts 79 copyright (2012), ACS applied materials & interfaces, and (c) nanorods 80 copyright (2014), Journal of Power Sources.
Figure 4:

SEM images of (a) nanosheets 78 copyright (2010), John Wiley and Sons, (b) nanobelts 79 copyright (2012), ACS applied materials & interfaces, and (c) nanorods 80 copyright (2014), Journal of Power Sources.

2.2.3 Hydrothermal method

The hydrothermal method is a synthesis technique used to produce nanostructured materials under high temperature and pressure in a liquid phase, typically water. This method allows for the controlled growth of crystalline materials, often resulting in high purity and well-defined structures. By adjusting parameters such as temperature, pressure, and reaction time, researchers can influence the size, shape, and morphology of the resulting products, making it suitable for a variety of applications, including ceramics, nanomaterials, and catalysts. The hydrothermal approach is particularly advantageous for synthesizing complex oxides and other inorganic compounds, enabling the formation of diverse structures like NTs, NWs, and NRs, while also facilitating the incorporation of different elements and dopants to enhance material properties. 81 Furthermore, Tang et al. developed elongated titanate NTs up to several micrometres long using a stirring hydrothermal method, representing a significant advancement in TiO2 NTs technology. By optimizing the stirring rate, they produced NTs with a high aspect ratio, enabling the creation of 1D TiO2 based materials suitable for lithium-ion batteries. 82 Morgan et al. explored how the amount of NaOH solution and temperature affect nanostructure formation from Degussa P25 using hydrothermal techniques. As depicted in Figure 5, varying hydrothermal conditions can lead to different TiO2 morphologies and structures. 84 Furthermore, Tanaka and Peng et al. examined the impact of NaOH solution amount, temperature, and reaction duration on the formation of nanostructures, using a titanium substrate as the precursor in hydrothermal method. 83 , 85

Figure 5: A morphological phase diagram showing the evolution of Degussa P25, highlighting the regions where nanostructures form following 20 h of hydrothermal treatment. 83 Copyright (2008), chemistry of materials.
Figure 5:

A morphological phase diagram showing the evolution of Degussa P25, highlighting the regions where nanostructures form following 20 h of hydrothermal treatment. 83 Copyright (2008), chemistry of materials.

3 Modification strategy

To enhance the performance of 1D TiO2 nanostructures, such as NRs, NTs, NWs, NSs, and NFs, various modification techniques have been employed. These methods, including thermal treatment, electrochemical deposition, sputtering, sol-gel synthesis, and hydrothermal processing, aim to reduce charge recombination and improve charge transfer efficiency. By integrating additional materials with TiO2, the modified structures can achieve better photocatalytic activity and increased stability, ultimately broadening their applications in fields like solar energy conversion and environmental remediation. The strategic combination of materials and innovative fabrication techniques is essential for optimizing the electronic and optical properties of these nanostructures, making them more effective for practical applications. 86

3.1 Metal and non-metal dopants into 1D TiO2

The strategic incorporation of selectively-doped metal ions into 1D TiO2 nanostructures effectively enhances visible light absorption and reduces charge carrier recombination rates. Introducing transition metal ions into these nanostructures leads to an increase in Ti3+ ions, which boosts photocatalytic activity. 87 This enhancement is linked to a h1igher concentration of oxygen defects that promote better oxygen adsorption on the surface of titania. Additionally, the presence of metal ions creates intraband states close to the valence band (VB) or conduction band (CB) edges, facilitating charge transfer transitions between the TiO2 nanostructures’ VB (or CB) and the d-electrons of the dopants, ultimately improving the absorption of visible light. 88

Asahi et al. incorporated nitrogen into TiO2 through sputtering in a nitrogen-rich gas blend, which broadened its absorption spectrum from the UV to visible light. This modification improved the photocatalytic degradation of methylene orange (MO) when exposed to visible light. Xing et al. fabricated TiO2/graphene composites using a hydrothermal method, in which Ti3+ self-doped TiO2 NRs were integrated onto boron-doped graphene sheets. Sodium borohydride (NaBH4) was employed as the boron doping source and as a reducing agent for the graphene. 89 Hou’s group systematically studied nitrogen-doped TiO2 NTs treated with hot ammonia via a hydrothermal method, discovering that the ammonia-to-deionized water ratio affected the NTs morphology (Figure 6). Nitrogen doping narrows the band gap and improves photogenerated carrier transfer, significantly enhancing photocatalytic activity for MO. Additionally, non-metals like carbon and fluorine have been incorporated into the TiO2 lattice using different methods, with carbon being the second most common element for modifying 1D TiO2 nanostructures. 90

Figure 6: Shows SEM images of TiO2 NTs arrays after immersion in water (a) ammonia solutions (b–f) with varying concentrations (vol (A): Vol (DI) = 1:10 to 1:1), with a scale bar of 200 nm. It also includes of the band structure for both pure and nitrogen-doped TiO2 NTAs (g), absorption spectra with estimated bandgaps (h), and the photocatalytic degradation of MO under visible light (i), where A represents ammonia solution and deionized water. 90 Copyright (2014), solid state Sciences.
Figure 6:

Shows SEM images of TiO2 NTs arrays after immersion in water (a) ammonia solutions (b–f) with varying concentrations (vol (A): Vol (DI) = 1:10 to 1:1), with a scale bar of 200 nm. It also includes of the band structure for both pure and nitrogen-doped TiO2 NTAs (g), absorption spectra with estimated bandgaps (h), and the photocatalytic degradation of MO under visible light (i), where A represents ammonia solution and deionized water. 90 Copyright (2014), solid state Sciences.

3.2 Combining with a semiconductor or conductor

Combining TiO2 with a semiconductor or conductor can significantly enhance its photocatalytic efficiency and overall performance in various applications. By integrating TiO2 with materials such as graphene, ZnO, or metal NPs, the resulting composites can improve charge separation and reduce electron-hole recombination, leading to greater photocatalytic activity. For instance, the presence of conductive materials can facilitate faster electron transport, while semiconductors can provide additional energy levels that help to harness more of the visible light spectrum. These hybrid structures not only enhance the photocatalytic degradation of pollutants but also improve the performance of solar cells, making them highly versatile for environmental applications. The synergistic effects of these combinations enable the development of advanced materials with tailored properties for specific applications. 91

Kim et al. used the S-CBD method to fabricate CdS/TiO2 NWs. They first synthesized TiO2 NWs through a hydrothermal process, then immersed them in a Cd2+ solution to uniformly deposit 8 nm CdS NPs on the surface. 92 Wang et al. created Cu2O/TiO2 NTs array (NTAs) p-n heterojunction using the chemical bath deposition method. As shown in Figure 7(a–e), the Cu2O NPs were uniformly coated on the TiO2 NTs. The quantity of Cu2O could be controlled by adjusting the deposition time. This p-n heterojunction significantly better the separation of photogenerated electrons and holes and enhanced visible light absorption. 94 Ye et al. enhanced n-type TiO2 NTs by decorating them with n-type TiO2 NPs through the hydrolysis of TiCl4 solution, which significantly increased surface area and improved solar cell efficiency (Figure 7(c and g)). 93 Meanwhile, Xu’s group employed an n-n type TiO2/CuInS2 NRs nanostructure solar cell using a solvothermal method (Figure 7(d and h). The CuInS2/TiO2 NRs exhibited higher power transformation efficiency under solar light than TiO2 NTs, owing to better electron-hole separation and enhanced light harvesting. 95

Figure 7: SEM images: (a) Cu2O/TiO2 NTAs, (b) CuO/TiO2 NFs, (c) TiO2 NPs/TiO2 NTAs, (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h) TEM images of CuInS2/TiO2 NRs. 93 Copyright (2011), nano letters.
Figure 7:

SEM images: (a) Cu2O/TiO2 NTAs, (b) CuO/TiO2 NFs, (c) TiO2 NPs/TiO2 NTAs, (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h) TEM images of CuInS2/TiO2 NRs. 93 Copyright (2011), nano letters.

4 Applications of 1D nanostructures

Diverse and effective methodologies have been employed for the fabrication of 1D TiO2 nanostructures. The intrinsic excellence of these nanostructures lies in their exceptional ion-exchange/intercalation capabilities, coupled with their photocatalytic and adsorption characteristics. Consequently, 1D TiO2 nanostructured materials have garnered significant attention, particularly for their roles in the photocatalytic degradation of airborne and aqueous pollutants, the augmentation of supercapacitors, the advancement of solar cells, and the progression of lithium-ion batteries. A comprehensive discussion on the applications of 1D TiO2 nanostructures is provided in this section and Table 3.

Table 3:

Comparison of the degradation capabilities of 1D TiO2 nanostructures against different organic pollutants.

S. No. Catalyst Synthesis

Process		 Photocatalytic applications Degradation capabilities Degradation

Time (min)		 References
1. Carbon/TiO2 nanotubes Hydrothermal method Rhodamine 6G (RhB-6G) dye 89 % 60 [ 96
2. Nitrogen doped

TiO2 nanotubes		 Anodization method Methylene orange 98.5 % 40 [ 97
3. TiO2 nanowires Hydrothermal approach Resorcinol photodegradation 99 % 60 [ 98
4. Fe2O3-TiO2 nanorods Electron beam deposition Methylene blue 85 % 60 [ 99
5. Ag/AgBr/TiO2 nanofibres Electrospinning method Methylene blue 100 % 20 [ 100
6. BiVO4/TiO2 nanofibers Solvothermal method Rhodamine B 98 % 30 [ 101
7. 2H-MoS2/1D-TNTs Anodization method Rhodamine B 99 % 120 [ 102
8. C-TiO2 nanorods Hydrothermal method Methylene blue, Rhodamine B (RhB) and p-nitrophenol (PNP) 63 % 80 [ 103
9. TiO2 nanotubes Liquid phase deposition Tetracycline hydrochloride 60 % 50 [ 104
10. Ag decorated TiO2 nanoneedles Hydrothermal method Methylene blue 98.7 % 50 [ 105

4.1 Photocatalytic applications

The widespread use of TiO2 nanostructured materials as photocatalysts is due to their impressive ability to facilitate both oxidation and reduction reactions. TiO2 reliably exhibits strong photocatalytic activity in tackling both airborne and aqueous pollutants.

4.1.1 Degradation of air pollutants

In recent years the air pollution has been an important and trouble for the human health therefore, a number of efforts have been made to remove these pollutants and purify the air. Millions of people throughout the world suffer from the consequences of air pollution. VOCs are chemical pollutants that cause many diseases.

The degradation of air pollutants is a critical environmental challenge that can be effectively addressed through advanced photocatalytic processes, particularly using materials like TiO2. When exposed to UV light, TiO2 generates reactive oxygen species that can break down harmful compounds such as VOCs, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter. 95 The advantage of photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) processes is that it occurs at low temperature and pressure. 95 Additionally, the effectiveness of TiO2 in degrading air pollutants can be enhanced by optimizing its nanostructure and incorporating co-catalysts or doping elements to extend its activity into the visible light spectrum. As urban air quality continues to decline, leveraging such photocatalytic technologies offers a promising approach to mitigate pollution and improve public health. 106 Yang et al. synthesized an Ag/TiO2 NTs composite using a straightforward method, with Ag nanocrystals around 3.8 nm uniformly distributed on the TiO2 surface (Figure 8(a and b)). This composite showed exceptional visible-light photocatalytic activity, degrading nearly 100 % of rhodamine B (RhB) in 2 h, outperforming P25 and TiO2 NTs (Figure 8(c, d)). Additionally, TiO2@carbon core/shell NFs were fabricated, allowing for controlled carbon layer thickness, which enhanced photocatalytic efficiency. The optimal performance was observed with a 2 nm thick carbon layer, benefiting from improved charge carrier separation and the synergistic effects of the carbon sensitizer. 107

Figure 8: Ag/TiO2 NTs (a) TEM images of Ag/TiO2 NTs (20nm), (b) TEM images of Ag/TiO2 NTs (2nm), (c) photocatalytic degradation of RhB over P25, TiO2 NTs, and Ag/TiO2 NTs, and (d) mechanism of RhB degradation over Ag/TiO2 NTs under visible light. 107 Copyright (2015), The Journal of Physical chemistry C.
Figure 8:

Ag/TiO2 NTs (a) TEM images of Ag/TiO2 NTs (20nm), (b) TEM images of Ag/TiO2 NTs (2nm), (c) photocatalytic degradation of RhB over P25, TiO2 NTs, and Ag/TiO2 NTs, and (d) mechanism of RhB degradation over Ag/TiO2 NTs under visible light. 107 Copyright (2015), The Journal of Physical chemistry C.

Sopyan et al. examined the kinetics of acetaldehyde, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) in a batch photoreactor, analysing the data based on the Langmuir-Hinshelwood model. 108 Khalilzadeh et al. designed a photoreactor using N-TiO2 and TiO2 NPs as photocatalysts, observing that the photocatalytic activity under visible light was greater for N-TiO2 than for TiO2. 109 Montalvo et al. developed a pseudo-first-order rate for formaldehyde degradation and found that sound-magnetic assisted fluidized bed (SMFB) outperformed multi-stage conversion fluidized bed (MFB) in enhancing degradation efficiency. 110 Qi et al. noted that while many studies have examined acetaldehyde degradation kinetics, literature reviews reveal a gap in research on acetaldehyde degradation in fluidized bed photoreactors and the various parameters affecting degradation efficiency in these systems. 111

4.1.2 Degradation of aqueous pollutants

The degradation of aqueous pollutants is a critical focus in environmental remediation, and photocatalysis has emerged as a promising approach to address this issue. Utilizing photocatalytic materials like TiO2, researchers can effectively break down harmful substances in water, including organic dyes, heavy metals, and pharmaceuticals. When TiO2 is exposed to UV light, photon energy excites electrons from the VB to the CB. 8 The electrons in the CB can react with oxygen to generate peroxide anions, while the holes in the VB create hydroxyl radicals by interacting with water, facilitating the degradation of pollutants (Figure 9(a)). Although traditional photocatalysis effectively degrades pollutants using various forms of TiO2, photoelectrocatalysis has shown enhanced efficiency, especially with 1D TiO2 nanostructures (NTs, NRs, NWs, NBs, and NFs) grown on FTO or titanium substrates (Figure 9 (b)). 8

Figure 9: A systematic representation of (a) photoelectrocatalysis and (b) degradation of pollutants for 1D TiO2.
Figure 9:

A systematic representation of (a) photoelectrocatalysis and (b) degradation of pollutants for 1D TiO2.

Wang et al. utilized electrospinning to create ultrafine fibers of cellulose acetate/TiO2 under UV light, aiming to improve dye wastewater treatment. To address TiO2’s low solar light absorption and large band gap, it is essential to couple 1D TiO2 with semiconductors, nonmetals, and metals to enhance visible light absorption and reduce the band gap, thereby improving both photoelectrocatalytic and photocatalytic activity. 112 Zhang et al. used an electrodeposition method to create Cu2O/TiO2 NTA p-n heterojunction photoelectrodes, with Cu2O NPs evenly distributed on TiO2 NTs. This configuration enhanced the separation of photogenerated electrons and holes, as well as visible light absorption. Compared to TiO2 NTs, the Cu2O/TiO2 NTA photoelectrodes exhibited improved photoconversion efficiency and greater stability in degrading rhodamine B (RhB), demonstrating the synergistic benefits of combining visible light and electricity. 113

4.2 Solar cells

Solar cells are devices that transform sunlight into electricity directly using the photovoltaic effect. These cells harness the abundant energy from the sun in a reliable and cost-effective means, making them a cornerstone of renewable energy technology. When sunlight strikes the surface of a solar cell, it excites electrons in a semiconductor material, typically silicon, creating electron-hole pairs. 114 This process is facilitated by a p-n junction, which generates an internal electric field that directs the flow of these charges, resulting in a direct current (DC) of electricity. With advances in technology, various types of solar cells have emerged, including monocrystalline, polycrystalline, thin-film, and perovskite cells, each with unique characteristics and efficiencies tailored for different applications. 115 A comparison of various applications of 1D TiO2 nanostructures is described in Table 4.

Table 4:

Comparison of the different applications and synthesis of 1D TiO2 nanostructures.

S. No. Precursor Product Synthesis method Phase Applications References
1. Titanium tetrachloride, ethanol, distilled water TiO2 nanowires Hydrothermal Rutile Dye-sensitized solar cells [ 116
2. Poly (vinyl pyrrolidone), tetrabutyl titanate, ethanol TiO2 nanowires Electrospinning and annealing Rutile Gas sensing [ 117
3. Titanium tetraisopropoxide, poly(vinyl acetate), acetic acid, DMSO TiO2 nanofibers Electrospinning Rutile Dye-sensitized solar cells [ 118
4. Ethylene glycol, ammonium fluoride, ethanol TiO2 nanotubes Anodization Anatase Photo-electrochemical and gas sensing [ 119
5. Titanium (Ti) sheets, glycerol, boron-source gas, ammonium fluoride, ethanol, TiO2 nanotubes Chemical vapour deposition Anatase Lithium-ion capacitor [ 120
6. Tetrabutyl titanate, hydrochloric acid, ethanol TiO2 nanorods Solvothermal Anatase Lithium-ion batteries [ 121
7. Titanium sulfate, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid TiO2 nanoflakes Hydrothermal Anatase Lithium-ion batteries [ 122
8. Sodium hydroxide, titanium sulfate, hydrochloric acid TiO2 nanoflakes Hydrothermal precipitation Anatase Lithium-ion battery [ 123
9. Acetone, methanol, isopropanol, tetrabutyl titanate, titanium(IV) butoxide TiO2 nanosheets Hydrothermal Anatase Sensors [ 124
10. Tetrabutyl titantate, hydrogen fluoride TiO2 nanosheets Hydrothermal Anatase Photocatalytic organic conversion [ 125
11. Ti foil samples, acetone, ethanol, and deionized (DI) TiO2 micro-flowers Anodic oxidation Anatase Dye-sensitized solar cells [ 126
12. Titanium n butoxide, acetic acid, TiO2 spheres Acid thermal method Anatase Dye-sensitized solar cells [ 127
13. Titanium (IV) isopropoxide, polyvinyl pyrrolidine TiO2 nanospheres Hydrothermal Anatase Li-ion battery [ 128
14. Oleic acid, ethanol, tetrabutyl titanate TiO2 nanospheres Solvothermal Anatase Photodegradation [ 129
15. Tetrabutyl titanate, hydrochloric acid, deionized water TiO2 nanoflowers Hydrothermal Anatase Photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants [ 130

The applications of solar cells are vast and varied, ranging from small scale uses in calculators and garden lights to large solar power plants that can provide electricity to thousands of homes. They are also increasingly integrated into building materials, a trend known as building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), allowing structures to generate energy while maintaining aesthetic appeal. Despite their significant benefits, such as lowering greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing energy independence, solar cells face challenges, including efficiency limitations and environmental impacts from production and disposal. Ongoing research is focused on improving efficiency, developing new materials, and enhancing recycling methods, ensuring that solar energy can play an increasingly vital role in a sustainable energy future. 115

Recent studies on solar cells using II-VI semiconductor nanostructures have garnered global attention and yielded significant results. Wu et al. developed CdS-based solar systems with Ga nanoribbons and Si heterojunctions. Under UV activation, the transistors demonstrated photovoltaic activity, with an open-circuit voltage of 0.45 V and a short-circuit current of 3.49 nA, achieving a throughput of 44.1 % and energy transfer efficiency of 1.2 %. 131 Britt et al. successfully fabricated 1 cm2 thin-film CdS/CdTe solar cells, achieving an efficiency of 15.8 %. 132 Zhou et al. created a ZnO/ZnSe type II core-shell NWs array solar cell, enhancing light absorption by increasing junction area and light trapping. Their work offers new possibilities for selecting absorber materials in solar cells. 133 Zang et al. developed CdS/Cu2S core-shell nanowire solar cells, which demonstrated improved open-circuit voltage and fill factor compared to planar cells, achieving an efficiency of approximately 5.4 %, despite having limited light absorption. They also connected multiple cells along single nanowires in both series and parallel arrangements to increase output. The enhanced performance is attributed to a low-temperature cation exchange process, which creates a heteroepitaxial junction between the CdS core and Cu2S shell (Figure 10). 135

Figure 10: SEM and I-V images: (a) SEM image of the unit, with CdS and Cu2S in yellow and brown, (b) I-V characteristic of the NWs under 1 sun (AM 1.5 G) illumination, (c) SEM image showing three PV units from a single NWs connected in series, (d) I-V characteristic of the series-connected units, showing an increase in voltage while the current stays the same, (e) SEM image of four PV units from a single nanowire connected in parallel, (f) I-V characteristic of the parallel units, showing an increase in current while the voltage remains constant. 134 Copyright (2013) crystal (MDPI).
Figure 10:

SEM and I-V images: (a) SEM image of the unit, with CdS and Cu2S in yellow and brown, (b) I-V characteristic of the NWs under 1 sun (AM 1.5 G) illumination, (c) SEM image showing three PV units from a single NWs connected in series, (d) I-V characteristic of the series-connected units, showing an increase in voltage while the current stays the same, (e) SEM image of four PV units from a single nanowire connected in parallel, (f) I-V characteristic of the parallel units, showing an increase in current while the voltage remains constant. 134 Copyright (2013) crystal (MDPI).

4.2.1 Dye-sensitized solar cells

DSSCs offer an innovative approach to solar energy conversion, characterized by their use of a photo-sensitizing dye to absorb sunlight and generate electricity. 134 Invented by Michael Gratzel in the early 1990s, these cells consist of a semiconductor, typically TiO2, which is coated with a dye that captures sunlight, exciting electrons and injecting them into the TiO2’s conduction band. This process allows for efficient electron transport to the external circuit, while an electrolyte regenerates the dye by transferring electrons back to it. The advantages of DSSCs include their versatility in design, cost-effectiveness, and good performance under low light conditions, making them suitable for various applications, including integration into building materials. 136 However, challenges such as long-term stability and efficiency improvements remain, prompting ongoing research into robust materials and advanced manufacturing techniques to enhance their commercial viability. 134 Ohsaki et al. pioneered the synthesis of TiO2 NTs for DSSCs applications using the hydrothermal process. Their research examined how various fabrication conditions, such as electrolyte composition, sintering temperature, and paste pH, significantly influence the performance of TiO2 NTs electrodes in DSSCs. Shankar et al. achieved a power conversion efficiency of 6.89 % for DSSCs by fabricating vertically aligned TiO2 NTAs with lengths ranging from 10 to 220 mm through the electrochemical anodization technique. 136

Wang et al. used rutile TiO2 NRs in solid-state DSSCs using C106 dye and spiro-MeOTAD as the hole-transporting material (HTM). The J-V curves shown in Figure 11(a) indicated a 2.9 % efficiency under full sunlight. However, transient photovoltage decay analysis in Figure 11(b and c) revealed that the recombination time for photogenerated electrons and holes in the rutile TiO2 NRs DSSCs was shorter than in the TiO2 NPs at the same charge density. This highlights the differing charge dynamics between the two materials. 57

Figure 11: Shows the J-V curves for DSSCs: (a) TiO2 NRs of varying lengths, (b) displays the charge recombination lifetime plots for device A and device D, while (c) illustrates the electron diffusion coefficients for the same devices. 57 Copyright (2014), American Chemical Society.
Figure 11:

Shows the J-V curves for DSSCs: (a) TiO2 NRs of varying lengths, (b) displays the charge recombination lifetime plots for device A and device D, while (c) illustrates the electron diffusion coefficients for the same devices. 57 Copyright (2014), American Chemical Society.

4.2.2 Lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are commonly used in portable electronics and the automotive sector due to their high energy density. They play a key role in reducing CO2 emissions and mitigating environmental pollution. Traditional LIB cells consist of graphite anodes, LiCoO2 cathodes, and a porous membrane separator soaked in electrolytes, which allow lithium ions to move between the electrodes while electrons flow through external circuits during charging and discharging. 137 To meet diverse application needs, LIBs require high power/energy density and long cycle life. However, graphite anodes face potential safety risks, such as thermal runaway, due to the formation of lithium dendrites and the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer, which arise from their relatively low lithiation potential. These issues are particularly problematic when LIBs are used at high current rates. As a result, researchers continue to search for alternative electrode materials that can address these challenges. 138

The desired battery performances include energy storage and portable power applications, thanks to their high energy density, and relatively low self-discharge rates. These batteries include a cathode, an anode, an electrolyte, and a separator, which enable the movement of lithium ions between the anode and cathode during charging and discharging cycles. 134 The performance of LIBs is often illustrated in graphs that display key metrics such as voltage, capacity, and charge-discharge cycles. For instance, capacity fade can be depicted over multiple cycles, showing how the battery’s ability to hold charge diminishes over time due to factors like electrolyte degradation and electrode material fatigue. Understanding these graphs is crucial for improving battery design and efficiency, guiding advancements in technologies including electric transports and renewable energy storage systems, and ultimately enabling a more sustainable energy future. 138

In 2005, Li et al. utilized a hydrothermal method to synthesize hydrogen titanate NTs. However, the drawbacks of the irregular and short TiO2 NTs became apparent, particularly in terms of their low discharge capacity. 139 Wang group created MoS2 nanosheet@TiO2 NTs nanostructures using a two-step process. They first synthesized porous TiO2 NTs through the sol-gel method and then added ultrathin MoS2 nanoclusters via solvothermal assembly. The composites achieved an initial discharge capacity of 931 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1, maintaining high capacity after 50 cycles. Additionally, a TiO2/MoO2 core-shell NWs array anode was developed using a hydrothermal method subsequent to controlled electrodeposition. 140

Tammawat and colleagues demonstrated that anatase TiO2 NFs anodes could be used directly as the active anode material in LIBs, without the need for additives or binders. These NFs showed excellent lithium storage capacity, stable cycling performance, and strong rate capability. 141 Wang et al. developed a hybrid lithium-ion capacitor using a TiO2 NBs array for the anode and graphene hydrogel for the cathode. Their findings revealed that the capacitor achieved an energy density of 21 Wh/kg and a high-power density of 19 kW/kg. 142 Zhu et al. successfully synthesized mesoporous single-grain layer anatase TiO2 NSs through a straightforward and easily reproducible method. These TiO2 NSs demonstrated a discharge capacity of 73 mAh/g and maintained distinct voltage plateaus over 4,000 cycles, making them a promising anode material for long-lasting LIBs. Wu et al. presented an efficient and eco-friendly method for synthesizing anatase petal-like TiO2 NSs. The distinctive structure exhibited high capacity and excellent cycling stability. This performance can be attributed to the relatively large surface area of 28.4 m2/g, which facilitates shorter lithium-ion diffusion distances and enhances the electrochemical performance of the electrode. 143

Xu’s group created MoS2 NSs@TiO2 NTs hybrids using a two-step method (Figure 12). The TiO2 NTs were first formed via sol-gel, then MoS2 nanoclusters were added through solvothermal treatment. The composites achieved 931 mAh/g at 100 mA/g, maintaining high capacity after 50 cycles. The large surface area and efficient Li-ion transfer contributed to this performance. MoS2@TiO2 hybrids, including NBs and NSs forms, showed over 700 mAh/g after 100 cycles (Figure 12). A TiO2/MoO2 core-shell NWs anode also demonstrated high capacity (∼670 mAh/g), excellent cycling (>200 cycles), and good rate performance (up to 2000 mA/g). 144

Figure 12: Shows SEM (a) TEM images (Inset (a)) of MoS2@TiO2 hybrids, (b) charge-discharge profiles at 100 mA/g, (c) compares the cycling performance of MoS2 flakes (I) and MoS2@TiO2 hybrids (II) at varying current densities, (d) show SEM images of TiO2/MoO2 core-shell NWs arrays, (e) shows the cycling performance and coulombic efficiency of TiO2/MoO2 at 50 mA/g cycling performance at 50 mA/g, (f) response at increasing current densities. 144 Copyright (2014), Royal Society of Chemistry.
Figure 12:

Shows SEM (a) TEM images (Inset (a)) of MoS2@TiO2 hybrids, (b) charge-discharge profiles at 100 mA/g, (c) compares the cycling performance of MoS2 flakes (I) and MoS2@TiO2 hybrids (II) at varying current densities, (d) show SEM images of TiO2/MoO2 core-shell NWs arrays, (e) shows the cycling performance and coulombic efficiency of TiO2/MoO2 at 50 mA/g cycling performance at 50 mA/g, (f) response at increasing current densities. 144 Copyright (2014), Royal Society of Chemistry.

5 Future challenges and perspectives

This review highlights the promise of nanostructured titanium dioxide as an effective and appealing alternative for developing flexible devices across various applications. However, significant challenges remain, particularly in enhancing the spectral sensitivity of these structures to visible and near-infrared light, as well as improving the biocompatibility of TiO2 nanostructures. Future research must prioritize long-term, consistent photoactivity, potentially achieved by exploring alternative synthesis routes. Non-metal doped TiO2 nanostructures currently show limited photocatalytic activity under visible light, suggesting a need for innovative materials such as polymers, glasses, ceramics, and metals, which can facilitate cost-effective and environmentally friendly applications. Additionally, advancing the development of new synthetic methods and nanostructures with increased surface area will be crucial. Techniques compatible with non-lithographic complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) processes may offer promising avenues for integrating new dopant materials into TiO2 nanostructures. Moreover, these advancements could open doors to applications in environmental remediation and alternative energy solutions. To address these challenges, interdisciplinary knowledge in chemistry, physics, and computational modeling will be essential, enabling researchers to optimize the structure and properties of TiO2 based materials for enhanced performance and broader applicability. Continued collaboration between materials scientists, chemists, and engineers will be vital in overcoming these hurdles and advancing the field.

6 Conclusions

In conclusion, advancements in the synthesis of 1D TiO2 nanostructures have significantly enhanced their photocatalytic applications for organic degradation. With the progress of nanotechnology, researchers have achieved controllable synthesis of 1D TiO2 materials, including solid NWs, NRs, and NBs, each with varying aspect ratios and internal structures. These innovations have spurred investigations into their photocatalytic properties and potential environmental applications. Solar photocatalysis using 1D TiO2 nanostructures presents a promising method for degrading organic pollutants, although successful industrial application hinges on the utilization of solar energy. Future efforts should focus on creating solar-light-active TiO2 nanomaterials and exploring the assembly of 1D nanostructures into integrated nanosystems, such as membranes or films. Rapid advancements are anticipated in developing cost-effective and scalable synthesis strategies for 1D TiO2 nanostructures, particularly for large-scale water treatment applications.

Jyoti Rawat and Pankaj Sharma, Instituto de Quimica, UNAM, Circuito Exterior, Coyoacan CDMX 04510, Mexico, E-mail: (J. Rawat), (P. Sharma); and Charu Dwivedi, Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, Doon University, Dehradun 248001, India, E-mail:

Funding source: Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal Académico, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

Award Identifier / Grant number: posdoc position IQ

Acknowledgments

I would also like to thank Direccion General de Asuntosdel Personal Academico (DGAPA), UNAM.

  1. Research ethics: Neither people nor animals were used as subjects in this investigation.

  2. Informed consent: All the authors are agreed in the manuscript.

  3. Author contributions: Jyoti Rawat: Writing-Original Draft, Review & Editing. Charu Dwivedi: Supervision, Review & Editing. Pankaj Sharma: Supervision, Review & Editing.

  4. Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: No ChatGPT, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning Tools (MLT) have been used for the preparation of manuscript.

  5. Conflict of interest: There is no conflict of interest.

  6. Research funding: Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal Académico, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100006087 (posdoc position IQ).

  7. Data availability: Not appilicable.

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Received: 2024-11-21
Accepted: 2025-04-04
Published Online: 2025-04-22

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

https://doi.org/10.1515/revic-2024-0130
Keywords for this article
nanomaterials; top-down; bottom-up; TiO2 nanostructures; environmental remediation
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