On the Raising of the Finite Main Verb in Angolan Portuguese and in Mozambican Portuguese: Cartographic Hierarchies, Microvariation and the Use of Adverbs as Diagnostics for Movement
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Aquiles Tescari Neto
Abstract
This paper revisits the issue of verb raising in two closely related languages, namely Angolan Portuguese (AP) and Mozambican Portuguese (MP). Cinque’s (cartographic) hierarchy of adverbs is used to examine microvariation in these two varieties of Portuguese. The empirical data, gathered through experiments on acceptability rating tasks (to detect the position of the V(erb) in relation to adverbs) and cloze tests (to diagnose the adverbial classes which can be recovered by the elliptical VP), have been collected among university students in Luanda and Maputo, the capitals of Angola and Mozambique, respectively. The cutting points within the functional hierarchy where the V goes, be it mandatorily or optionally, are different in the two languages. In AP, the verb must raise past the frustrative aspect adverb (em vão/à toa ‘in vain’), while in MP the verb must raise to the left of the singular completive adverb (tudo ‘everything’). The main verb cannot raise past the AspTerminative adverb (já não/não mais ‘no longer’) in MP. In AP, it can optionally raise over the highest projection in the inflectional domain. Such a difference may explain the recovery of high adverbs in VP-ellipsis structures, only possible in AP. The corollary of the inter-linguistic study developed for Comparative Syntax is the adequacy of the cartographic démarche when it comes to establishment of strict boundaries in the study of microvariation among closely related grammars.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank The São Paulo Research Foundation, FAPESP for supporting this work, within the context of the research project entitled “Verb Raising and the Architecture of the Clause in Angolan and Mozambican Portuguese: a Cartographic Approach” (#2016/20853-6). I also acknowledge the CAPES-Print funding programme (# AUXPE 88881.311270/2018-01). Preliminary versions of this paper were presented at the universities of Venice and Geneva (January 2019), at the VIII Encuentro de Gramática Generativa (Buenos Aires, August 2018) and at the Eduardo Mondlane University (Maputo, Mozambique, September 2019). I thank the audiences for the questions raised. I would also like to thank the members of my research group, LaCaSa, at the University of Campinas (Unicamp), and Guglielmo Cinque for their insightful contributions to a first draft of this paper. I am indebted to the faculty at the Higher Institute of Educational Sciences – ISCED, Luanda, Angola, and at the Eduardo Mondlane University – UEM, Maputo, Mozambique, for all the institutional support and friendship provided to me on the three unforgettable occasions when I went to those places to gather the data presented here, especially professors José Tchindjendje and Teresa Camacha (ISCED), Francisco Vicente, Victor Justino and Óscar Fumo (UEM). I also owe gratitude to the undergraduate students from the Modern Languages and Linguistics courses at ISCED and at UEM who voluntarily took part in my study, giving their impressions on the data I have had the pleasure to share here. Last but not least, I must extend my thanks to the two anonymous reviewers for their significant questions, thought-provoking criticisms and insightful suggestions which have substantially helped me to improve the manuscript, and also the editors of this special issue on the Cartography of Romance languages, Giuseppe Samo and Luigi Rizzi, not only for the publication of this important collection of papers but also for their leadership in this notable research programme.
Appendix: Apropos of the A–V–O Order Featuring the Three Lowest Low Adverbs
The mean ratings reported for the A–V–O order—see Table 1 (for AP) and Table 3 (for MP), Section 4.1—featuring the frequentativeII (com frequência ‘often’), repetitiveII (de novo ‘again’) and inceptiveII (do nada ‘out of nowhere’) classes of adverbs deserve an explanation. The mean ratings related to these adverbs in this order give rise to an unexpected “degree of acceptability”, since from cedo ‘early’ upwards in AP (see Table 1) and from bem ‘well’ (the category immediately c-commanding cedo) upwards in MP (Table 4) the A–V–O order gives rise to ill-formed results. So, considering the Head Movement Constraint (Travis 1984)—which can be subsumed under the more general locality condition, namely Relativised Minimality (Rizzi 1990, 2001, 2004)—, the A–V–O order would give rise to ill-formed results for those three adverbs c-commanded by cedo ‘early’, contrary to facts. Therefore, there are (conceptual) reasons to assume that our informants have probably considered the highest position of merger for those three adverbials—which is the position from where the adverb has scope over the event (or “TP”)—when rating the sentences presented in the task. Given the well formedness of the sentences rated, the only possible interpretation is that our informants considered the higher position of merger for these three adverbs. Were the lowest position taken into account, informants would have given low scores for the A–V–O order, inasmuch as locality would preclude their well formedness: on its raising upwards the V could not skip any intermediate position.
Methodology, Task and Stimuli
In order to make it precise whether the three lowest adverbs were the representatives of the lowest categories—i.e., the projections having scope over the vP—or the highest ones—having scope over the “TP”—, during the experiment described in Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, volunteers were asked to rate sentences where the adverb com frequência ‘often’ co-occurs with raramente ‘rarely’ (see (16)). The sentence to be judged was presented as a separate section of the Google Form and counted on both written and audio stimuli.
The results of this co-occurrence test would allow one to argue that the acceptance of the A–V–O order featuring the lowest com frequência would be due to the fact that volunteers considered the highest representative of com frequência—and I believe that the same observation is also valid for the other (“ambiguous”) aspect-II adverbs (the repetitiveII adverb de novo ‘again’ and the inceptiveII adverb do nada ‘out of nowhere’).
| A Maria | raramente | limpa a casa | com frequência |
| The Maria | rarely | cleans the house | often |
| ‘Maria rarely cleans the house often’ | |||
Results and Discussion
The results of the acceptability rating task are presented below.
On the co-occurrence of two frequentative aspect adverbs in (16).
| N | Mean | t-statistica | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Angola | 24 | 3.67 | −0.6990 | 0.244080 |
| Mozambique | 23 | 3.96 |
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a The statistic was obtained from a standard parametric t-test to compare two population means from independent populations. As the assumption of equal variances is not valid (according to the F-test for equality of two variances previously performed), unpooled variances were considered. It is important to note that the Welch test was used, that is, the t-test to compare population means with different variances. First, the F-test was used to evaluate the null hypothesis of equality of variances, rejected at 5% significance. Therefore, the test for the mean with distinct variances was conducted.
Of course, our Mozambican informants tend to consider these sentences virtually grammatical, as the mean rating is very close to 4 (of our Likert scale). Nonetheless, even among Angolans the result is closer to grammaticality than to ungrammaticality, as the mean rating is 3.67. As the p-value is higher than 0.05, which is a welcoming result, there would be no statistically significant difference among the speakers of these two communities, as expected, given the fact that the co-occurrence of these two classes of adverbs is indeed expected from the point of view of Cinque’s hierarchy, as they occupy different positions.
All in all, the conclusion on the mean ratings for the three lowest of the low adverbs in both varieties (see the text relative to Tables 1 and 3, Section 4.1) is that volunteers have probably taken the representatives of the highest positions when they judged the A–V–O order featuring the three lowest adverbs. That explains the relative well-formedness of the sentence featuring frequentemente ‘often’ in the A–V–O order. I conjecture that the same explanation can be extended to the repetitive and inceptive classes of adverbs, that each has two distinct merge positions in Cinque’s hierarchy.
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Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Original Articles
- Introduction: On the Role of Romance in Cartographic Studies
- a-Topics in Italian/Romance and the Cartography of Children’s Inventions
- Long Subject Questions in French: An Insight into the Left Periphery of Selected CPs
- On Two Sub-projections of the Nominal Extended Projection: Some Romance Evidence
- The Syntactic Encoding of Conventional Implicatures in Sicilian Polar Questions
- On French Est-ce que Yes/No Questions and Related Constructions
- Criterial V2: ModP as a Locus of Microvariation in Swiss Romansh Varieties
- On the Raising of the Finite Main Verb in Angolan Portuguese and in Mozambican Portuguese: Cartographic Hierarchies, Microvariation and the Use of Adverbs as Diagnostics for Movement
- Microvariation and Change in the Romance Left Periphery
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Original Articles
- Introduction: On the Role of Romance in Cartographic Studies
- a-Topics in Italian/Romance and the Cartography of Children’s Inventions
- Long Subject Questions in French: An Insight into the Left Periphery of Selected CPs
- On Two Sub-projections of the Nominal Extended Projection: Some Romance Evidence
- The Syntactic Encoding of Conventional Implicatures in Sicilian Polar Questions
- On French Est-ce que Yes/No Questions and Related Constructions
- Criterial V2: ModP as a Locus of Microvariation in Swiss Romansh Varieties
- On the Raising of the Finite Main Verb in Angolan Portuguese and in Mozambican Portuguese: Cartographic Hierarchies, Microvariation and the Use of Adverbs as Diagnostics for Movement
- Microvariation and Change in the Romance Left Periphery
