Abstract
By offering a comprehensive insight into the burden sharing behavior of states contributing to the MINUSMA peacekeeping mission, this paper contributes to the growing literature on burden sharing during specific crisis response operations. Three fairness principles (i.e. equality, equity and exemption) are applied to present an inclusive view on how burden sharing evolves. We find proximity to serve as a paramount motivation to contribute to the mission. As compared to advanced states, low income developing countries both deployed most troops to MINUSMA and were overrepresented in Mali’s most dangerous areas. The highest troop contributing countries have been compensated financially and advanced economies provided the financial and technical means.
References
Albrecht, P., S. M. Cold-Ravnkilde, and R. Haugegaard. 2017. African Peacekeepers in Mali. Copenhagen: DIIS Report. https://pure.diis.dk/ws/files/762381/DIIS_RP_2017_2_WEB.pdf (accessed October 28, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Beeres, R., and M. Bogers. 2012. “Ranking the Performance of European Armed Forces.” Defence and Peace Economics 23 (1): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2011.578401.Search in Google Scholar
Bellamy, A., and P. Williams. 2013. “Introduction: the politics and challenges of providing peacekeepers.” In Providing Peacekeepers: The Politics, Challenges, and Future of United Nations Peacekeeping Contributions, edited by A. Bellamy, and P. Williams, 1–22. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672820.003.0001Search in Google Scholar
Berkok, U. G., and B. Solomon. 2011. “Peacekeeping, Private Benefits and Common Agency.” In Handbook on the Economics of Conflict, edited by D. L. Braddon and K. Hartley, 265–92. Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing.10.4337/9780857930347.00016Search in Google Scholar
Boeke, S., and B. Schuurman. 2015. “Operation ‘Serval’: A Strategic Analysis of the French Intervention in Mali, 2013–2014.” Journal of Strategic Studies 38 (6): 801–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2015.1045494.Search in Google Scholar
Bogers, M. 2022. Burden Sharing in Security Organizations: Broadening the Burden Sharing Debate. Tilburg: Tilburg University. Heinen_Bogers_Burden_30_05_2022.pdf (uvt.nl) (accessed October 28, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Bogers, M., and R. Beeres. 2013. “Mission Afghanistan: Who Bears the Heaviest Burden.” Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy 19 (1): 32–55. https://doi.org/10.1515/peps-2013-0002.Search in Google Scholar
Bogers, M., R. Beeres, and M. Bollen. 2022. “NATO Burden Sharing Research along Three Paradigms.” Defence and Peace Economics 33 (5): 534–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2020.1819135.Search in Google Scholar
Bove, V., and L. Elia. 2011. “Supplying Peace: Participation in and Troop Contribution to Peacekeeping Missions.” Journal of Peace Research 48 (6): 699–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311418265.Search in Google Scholar
Cabestan, J. P. 2018. China’s Evolving Role as a UN Peacekeeper in Mali. Washington: Institute of Peace. https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2018-09/sr432-chinas-evolving-role-as-a-un-peacekeeper-in-mali.pdf (accessed October 28, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Chauzal, G., and T. van Damme. 2015. The Roots of Mali’s Conflict. Moving beyond the 2012 Crisis. The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael. https://www.clingendael.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/The_roots_of_Malis_conflict.pdf (accessed October 28, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Coleman, K. P., and B. Nyblade. 2018. “Peacekeeping for Profit? the Scope and Limits of ‘mercenary’ UN Peacekeeping.” Journal of Peace Research 55 (6): 726–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343318775784.Search in Google Scholar
Curran, D., and P. D. Williams. 2016. “The United Kingdom and United Nations Peace Operations.” International Peacekeeping 23 (5): 630–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2016.1235098.Search in Google Scholar
EUTM [EU Training Mission Mali]. 2022. Facts and Figures: EU Training Mission Mali. https://eutmmali.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/20220113_Fact-Sheet-EUTM-sans-elections-22FEB_ENG.pdf (accessed October 14, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
French Ministère des Armées. 2022. In Memoriam. https://www.defense.gouv.fr/terre/in-memoriam (accessed October 4, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Gaibulloev, K., J. George, T. Sandler, and H. Shimizu. 2015. “Personnel Contributions to UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping Missions: A Public Goods Approach.” Journal of Peace Research 52 (6): 727–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343315579245.Search in Google Scholar
Gaibulloev, K., T. Sandler, and H. Shimizu. 2009. “Demands for UN and Non-UN Peacekeeping: Nonvoluntary versus Voluntary Contributions to a Public Good.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 53 (6): 827–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002709338509.Search in Google Scholar
GTD [Global Terrorism Database]. 2021. https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/(accessed June 10, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Haesebrouck, T., and A. Thiem. 2018. “Burden Sharing in CSDP Military Operations.” Defence and Peace Economics 29 (7): 748–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2017.1320183.Search in Google Scholar
Hartley, K., and T. Sandler. 1999. “NATO Burden-Sharing: Past and Future.” Journal of Peace Research 36 (6): 665–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343399036006004.Search in Google Scholar
IISS [International Institute for Strategic Studies]. 2014–2022. The Military Balance 2014–2022. London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
IMF [International Monetary Fund]. 2022. Table A. Economy Groupings. https://www.imf.org/en/Home (accessed October, 10 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Jakobsen, P. 2016. “Denmark and UN Peacekeeping: Glorious Past, Dim Future.” International Peacekeeping 23 (5): 741–61.10.1080/13533312.2016.1227933Search in Google Scholar
Kathman, J. D., and M. M. Melin. 2017. “Who Keeps the Peace? Understanding State Contributions to UN Peacekeeping Operations.” International Studies Quarterly 61 (1): 150–62. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqw041.Search in Google Scholar
Koops, J. A. 2016. “Germany and United Nations Peacekeeping: The Cautiously Evolving Contributor.” International Peacekeeping 23 (5): 652–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2016.1235092.Search in Google Scholar
LUAM [Live Universal Awareness Map]. 2021. Sahel. https://sahel.liveuamap.com/ (accessed October 10, 2020 and June 10, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Murdoch, J. C., and T. Sandler. 1982. “A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of NATO.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 26 (2): 237–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002782026002003.Search in Google Scholar
Murdoch, J. C., and T. Sandler. 1984. “Complementarity, Free Riding, and the Military Expenditures of NATO Allies.” Journal of Public Economics 25 (1/2): 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2727(84)90045-8.Search in Google Scholar
Murphy, R. 2016. “Europe’s Return to UN Peacekeeping? Opportunities, Challenges and Ways Ahead–Ireland.” International Peacekeeping 23 (5): 721–40.10.1080/13533312.2016.1235093Search in Google Scholar
NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization]. 2022. Information on Defense Expenditures. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49198.htm (accessed October 11, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Nilsson, C., and K. Zetterlund. 2016. “Sweden and the UN: A Rekindled Partnership for Peacekeeping?” International Peacekeeping 23 (5): 762–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2016.1235097.Search in Google Scholar
Oma, I. M. 2012. “Explaining States’ Burden-Sharing Behaviour within NATO.” Cooperation and Conflict 47 (4): 562–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836712462856.Search in Google Scholar
Olson, M., and R. R. Zeckhauser. 1966. “An Economic Theory of Alliances.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 48 (3): 266–79. https://doi.org/10.2307/1927082.Search in Google Scholar
Ringius, L., A. Torvanger, and A. Underdal. 2002. “Burden Sharing and Fairness Principles in International Climate Policy.” International Environmental Agreements 2 (1): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015041613785.10.1023/A:1015041613785Search in Google Scholar
Ringsmose, J. 2010. “NATO Burden-Sharing Redux: Continuity and Change after the Cold War.” Contemporary Security Policy 31 (2): 319–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2010.491391.Search in Google Scholar
Sandler, T., and J. F. Forbes. 1980. “Burden Sharing, Strategy, and the Design of NATO.” Economic Inquiry 18 (3): 425–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.1980.tb00588.x.Search in Google Scholar
Seiglie, C. 2005. “Efficient Peacekeeping for a New World Order.” Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy 11 (2): 175–92. https://doi.org/10.2202/1554-8597.1088.Search in Google Scholar
Shimizu, H., and T. Sandler. 2002. “Peacekeeping and Burden-Sharing, 1994–2000.” Journal of Peace Research 39 (6): 651–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343302039006001.Search in Google Scholar
Shimizu, H., and T. Sandler. 2003. “NATO Peacekeeping and Burden Sharing: 1994–2000.” Public Finance Review 31 (2): 123–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1091142102250323.Search in Google Scholar
SIPRI [Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]. 2022. SIPRI Military Expenditure Database. https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex (accessed December 19, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Soeters, J. 2021. “Militaries’ Organizational Cultures in a Globalizing World.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1937 (accessed December 19, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Solomon, B. 2004. “NATO Burden Sharing Revisited.” Defence and Peace Economics 15 (3): 251–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242690320001608917.Search in Google Scholar
Speklé, R. F. 2001. “Explaining Management Control Structure Variety: A Transaction Cost Economics Perspective.” Accounting, Organizations and Society 26 (4/5): 419–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-3682(00)00041-6.Search in Google Scholar
Sperling, J., and M. Webber. 2009. “NATO: From Kosovo to Kabul.” International Affairs 85 (3): 491–511. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2009.00810.x.Search in Google Scholar
Stojek, S. M., and J. Tir. 2014. “The Supply Side of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Trade Ties and United Nations-Led Deployments to Civil War States.” European Journal of International Relations 21 (2): 352–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066114532665.Search in Google Scholar
Tardy, T. 2016. “France: The Unlikely Return to UN Peacekeeping.” International Peacekeeping 23 (5): 610–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2016.1235091.Search in Google Scholar
UN [United Nations]. 2012. Resolution 2085. The Situation in Mali. http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/2085 (accessed October 3, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
UN [United Nations]. 2022a. Troop and Police Contributors. https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors (accessed August 28, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
UN [United Nations]. 2022b. Fatalities. https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/fatalities (accessed August 28, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
UN [United Nations]. 2022c. United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). https://www.un.org/en/ga/contributions/peacekeeping.shtml (accessed October 11, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
UNDFSCS [United Nations Department of Field Support Cartographic Section]. 2014–2021. MINUSMA Deployment as at 30 May 2014–December 2021 (Map No. 4506 Rev. 4; 6; 8; 9; 10; 11; 17; 22; 25; 26; 29; 30; 31; 32; 33; 34; 35; 36; 37; 38; 39; 40; 41). https://www.un.org/geospatial/search/node/minusma (accessed October 15, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
van Willigen, N. 2016. “A Dutch Return to UN Peacekeeping?” International Peacekeeping 23 (5): 702–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2016.1235095.Search in Google Scholar
Weiss, T., and G. Kuele. 2019. Why Developing Nations Send So Many Troops to UN Peace Ops. https://www.passblue.com/2019/02/12/why-developing-nations-send-so-many-troops-to-un-peace-ops/ (accessed October 15, 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Williamson, O. E. 1991. “Comparative Economic Organization: The Analysis of Discrete Structural Alternatives.” Administrative Science Quarterly 36 (2): 269–96. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393356.Search in Google Scholar
Zyla, B. 2016. “Who Is Keeping the Peace and Who Is Free-Riding? NATO Middle Powers and Burden Sharing 1995–2001.” International Politics 53 (3): 303–23. https://doi.org/10.1057/ip.2016.2.Search in Google Scholar
© 2023 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Do Remittances and Terrorism Impact Each Other?
- Burden Sharing During MINUSMA, Fair Enough? A Preliminary Descriptive Account
- Population, Institutions, and Violent Conflicts – How Important is Population Pressure in Violent Resource-Based Conflicts?
- Letters and Proceedings
- Does Geopolitical Risk Influence China’s Defence Sector Returns?
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Do Remittances and Terrorism Impact Each Other?
- Burden Sharing During MINUSMA, Fair Enough? A Preliminary Descriptive Account
- Population, Institutions, and Violent Conflicts – How Important is Population Pressure in Violent Resource-Based Conflicts?
- Letters and Proceedings
- Does Geopolitical Risk Influence China’s Defence Sector Returns?