The Function of Digital Technology in Minority Language Preservation: The Case of the Gyalrong Tibetan Language

2.1 The Diversity of Tibetan Dialects in China

There are three major Tibetan regions in China: U-Tsang, Amdo and Kham (Duoerji 2015; Zhou 2010). The Tibetan people are primarily divided into U-Tsang, Amdo, Kham and special Tibetan branches, the latter of which include Kongpo, Gyalrong, Minyag, Baima, Hwari, Zhuocang, Sherpa and others (Roche and Suzuki 2018; Suzuki 2016; Zhou 2010). The classification of Tibetans is highly consistent with the classification of Tibetan regions.

There were more than 1.2 million Tibetans in western Sichuan by the end of 2006 (Wang 2006). These Tibetans are primarily distributed among the Garze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (with c. 732,000 people); Aba Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (c. 480,700 people); Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture; Baoping, Shimian, Hanyuan, and other counties in the Ya’an area; and in Pingwu and Nanping counties in the Mianyang area (Qu 2010; Suzuki 2016; Wang 2006).

In academia, the Gyalrong Tibetans are generally considered a branch of the Tibetan ethnic group, with a population of c. 370,000 (Qu 1984, Que 1995; Shi 2014) predominantly distributed among Danba County and Kangding County of the Garze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, the Da Jin River and Xiao Jin River basin west of the Qionglai Mountains, Li and Wenchuan Counties east of the Qionglai Mountains along the Dadu River, and in Baoxing County, Tianquan County, Kangding City and Daofu County southeast of the Jiajin Mountains. In Danba County (Figure 1), approximately 60 % of the population is Gyalrong Tibetan, 30 % Han, and 3 % Qiang, with the remaining 7 % composed of Mongolian, Hui, Dong, Miao, Manchu, Zhuang, Chaoxian and other ethnic minorities.

Figure 1:

The map of Danba County.

There are many dialects of the Tibetan language, which are primarily divided into U-Tsang, Amdo and Kham (Qu 1984, 2010). These three dialects are further subdivided, as follows.

The U-Tsang dialect includes the Qianzang dialect, which is primarily spoken in Lhasa and Shannan, the Hoin Tibetan dialect in Shigatse Prefecture, the Ali Tibetan dialect in Ali Prefecture, the Sherpa Tibetan dialect in Zhangmu Port of Nyalam County, the Basong Tibetan dialect in Cuogao Township and Xueka Township of Gongbujiangda County (Qu 2014; Que 1995).

The Kham Dialect includes the eastern native dialect in Dege County, Kang Ding City, Ya Jiang County, Changdu City and other regions; the southern dialect in Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Muli Tibetan Autonomous County; the western dialect in Gaize, Bange, Nierong, Shenzha and other counties; Zhuoni dialect in Zhuoni and Diebu Counties; and Zhouqu dialect in Zhouqu county (Qu 2014; Que 1995; Shi 2014; Suzuki 2016).

The Amdo dialect includes pastoral dialects in various Tibetan autonomous prefectures in Qinghai Province and parts of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan Province; agricultural native languages in Hualong Hui Autonomous County, Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, and Ledu District of Haidong City, among others; and semi-agricultural and semi-pastoral languages of Tongren County and Xiahe County (Qu 1984, 1990).

The languages spoken in Tibetan areas in western Sichuan are diverse, including different Tibetan dialects, Chinese and other minority languages (Duoerji 2015; Qu 2010). In western Sichuan, Chinese is also divided into Mandarin and Sichuanese, which primarily reflect differences in speech. Most of the early Tibetan residents in western Sichuan were accustomed to speaking the Tibetan language, the most representative of which was the GTL (Tashi and Drudrup 2011). In addition, Tibetan dialects in Sichuan province include the Kang dialect, the Jia dialect, the Amdo language and the Ergonese language (Qu 1984, 1990, 2010; Suzuki 2016).

However, with development over time and according to the needs of society, the Jiarong Tibetan language is gradually disappearing, being replaced by the current Chinese language. Increasingly many Tibetan residents can understand but not speak Tibetan (Duoerji 2015; Fan 2018). Moreover, in western Sichuan, because there are many dialects of Tibetan languages that cannot be unified and centralised, the retention and transmission of each language is often limited to oral transmission of family life and daily communication of older persons.

2.2 Digital Technology and Gyalrong Tibetan Community

In recent decades, digital technology has become a typical feature of modern societies, influencing various communities worldwide (Sianturi, Lee, and Cumming 2023). The GTC is known for its unique language, culture and traditions (Qu 2010). With the development of Internet and infrastructure construction, Danba County, where the GTC is located, has become a famous tourist destination, illustrating how the GTC is increasingly connected to other communities and Internet connectivity and the use of mobile devices have expanded, facilitating access to information, communication and online services. Furthermore, digital technology has facilitated communication between geographically dispersed Gyalrong Tibetans, allowing them to maintain cultural ties and solidarity (Zhu 2021).

Digital technology has been adopted into conservation of both intangible and tangible culture heritage, such as customs, traditions, language, archaeological sites, artifacts and so forth (UNESCO 2003). To preserve intangible cultural heritage, initiatives such as the digitisation of traditional paintings, oral traditions and traditional costumes have been undertaken. Virtual platforms have also emerged, allowing all community members to share stories, songs and rituals, thereby increasing cultural awareness and understanding (Ovide and García-peñalvo 2016; Sianturi, Lee, and Cumming 2023). At the same time, social media has become a popular tool to allow the online dissemination of digital cultural heritage in comprehensive and attractive manner (Manžuch 2017; Meighan 2022).

In addition, for most Gyalrong Tibetans, social media platforms are significant channels through which to express their identity and disseminate minority culture and experiences (Casumbal-Salazar 2017; Meighan 2022). Meanwhile, Gyalrong people can connect with other communities and promote cross-cultural exchanges through digital media, such as short films, documentaries and online art galleries (Lakhan and Laxman 2018). Digital storytelling has allowed the GTC to share their history, struggles and aspirations with the world, promoting cultural appreciation and understanding (Galla 2016; Mager et al. 2018).

However, the GTC faces challenges in terms of digital confusion, due to disparities in Internet infrastructure (Marcu et al. 2022) associated with living in remote areas, along borders, or in economically underdeveloped areas (Li et al. 2021; Jia 2023). For instance, some community members, especially older persons and remote villagers, may have limited access to digital resources, which affects their perception of digital technologies (Li and Woolrych 2021).

Digital technology also has influenced the traditional economy of the GTC. Although digital technology has opened new possibilities for cultural preservation, economic growth and social connections, challenges related to digital inclusion and cultural representation persist (Fan 2018; Zhu 2021). For instance, e-commerce platforms and mobile payment systems have facilitated trade and opened new economic opportunities for local artisans and businesses. However, possible homogenisation of traditional handicrafts and cultural products for the digital market remains a concern. Fan (2018) and Zhao (2022) indicated that it is essential for stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, and community leaders, to address these challenges to ensure that the GTC can fully exploit the potential of digital technologies while preserving its unique heritage and identity.

2.3 Digital Technology and the Gyalrong Tibetan Language

Several studies have emphasised the significance of digital technology in documenting and archiving minority languages. For instance, Eisenlohr (2004) reviewed studies that addressed using new technologies to revitalise lesser-used languages. Elsewhere, Casumbal-Salazar (2017) also conducted similar research regarding digital technologies and indigenous languages. Hence, digital technology has emerged as a significant tool for the preservation and revitalisation of minority languages and cultures. Of the three major dialects, Kangba has particular significance for improvement of the cultural community, promotion of cultural prosperity, and promotion of ethnic history research (Qu 1984; Zhao 2022).

The GTL, which is used by c. 370,000 people, has a complicated linguistic and historical cultural background (Qu 2014). GTL is an important branch of the Kham dialect, with its use primarily concentrated in areas such as Maerkang City, Jinchuan County, Xiaojin County, Wenchuan County in the Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan Province, and Danba County and Daofu County in the Garze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Qu 1984, 2010).

GTL is the only Tibetan branch language that retains relatively complete ancient characteristics and hence is valuable when studying the history of Sino-Tibetan languages (Qu 2010, 2014). For instance, the consonant-vowel system of GTL is complicated but regular, and the GTL grammatical system includes ancient prepositional structures and personal and subordinate categories (Qu 2014). Influenced by the geographical environment, GTL has divided into four dialects that are not mutually intelligible and have local characteristics (Qu 1990, 2014), and includes at least seven different dialects in total (Tashi and Drudrup 2011).

Linguistic diversity is an important part of human civilisation, and the protection of national languages is a necessary part of the protection of cultural diversity and the plurality of civilisations (Qu 2010; Zhao 2022). However, many minority languages and cultures in China are gradually disappearing, with the GTL and culture no exception. One of the factors underlying this disappearance is that ethnic minority areas have basically formed a bilingual system of minority language and Chinese, due to economic development, population flow, frequent exchanges, the need for communication (Qu 2010) and the promotion of the common language (Tashi and Drudrup 2011).

Qu (2010) noted that one characteristic of an endangered minority language is that it is only used in a small area and mixed with other languages (Tashi and Drudrup 2011). Similar to the characteristics of scattered, small, and mixed distribution of ethnic minorities in other regions of China, Gyalrong Tibetan people primarily live in Danba county, a remote and small county in western Sichuan (Qu 2014). Many other minority groups live in Danba county, such as Han, Yi and Qiang. Therefore, conducting language research with Gyalrong Tibetans in Danba County can serve as a typical case that applies to other areas of the country.

Various factors might lead to language changes, such as socio-political, economic, cultural development, the number of people who speak the language, the scope of communication, the nature of language, and the scope of communication functions (Qu 2010, 2014; Tashi and Drudrup 2011). As the number of people using and understanding the GTL decreases, GTL and its associated heritage will inevitably disappear. Moreover, because the younger generation of Gyalrong Tibetan people have limited understanding of Gyalrong Tibetan heritage, they try to avoid using the GTL in their daily life. Therefore, it is critical to research the protection and dissemination of Gyalrong Tibetan minority languages.

Digital technology offers opportunities for cultural preservation and representation (Junker 2018; Lantaya et al. 2021). Researchers have explored the use of digital platforms to showcase Gyalrong Tibetan cultural heritage, including traditional stories, music, and rituals. By presenting the cultural aspects of the Gyalrong Tibetan dialect online, digital technology contributes to the promotion and awareness of the significance of the language within its cultural context (Qu 2014; Tashi and Drudrup 2011). In addition, digital recording devices, linguistic databases, and online archives have enabled researchers and community members to capture and preserve spoken language, cultural practices, and traditional knowledge associated with the dialect (Brown and Nicholas 2012).

Digital technology ensures the conservation of linguistic resources, making them accessible for future research and language revitalisation initiatives. To protect GTL, researchers have considered education, ideology and culture. However, there exist difficulties with GTL research, due to a lack of learning and reference materials (Tashi and Drudrup 2011). A lag exists in the digitisation of ethnic minority cultures, and the popularisation and dissemination of concepts and technologies for the creation, preservation and utilisation of digital resources is slow (Fan 2018; Zhao 2022).

In recent decades, linguistics researchers and local cultural workers have expended considerable effort to collect and retain a large digital corpus, including of minority languages and oral literature. Nevertheless, the actual application of digital sources is inadequate, due to dated formats and lack of dissemination (Fan 2018). Meanwhile, previous research has focused more on the history, pronunciation and distribution of the GTL (Qu 1984, 1990, 2010), and the theoretical preservation of GTL material (Duoerji 2015; Tashi and Drudrup 2011). There is insufficient prior empirical research, especially in the context of current society, which is characterised by rapid development of digital technology; in this context, research cannot remain at a theoretical level (Fan 2018; Zhao 2022; Qu 2014; Zhu 2021). Further research needs to better adopt the collected literature and materials into daily life.

This study addressed the following three research questions: 1) How can digital technology support GTL revitalisation and cultural reclamation? 2) What are the challenges and opportunities associated with incorporating digital technology in the preservation of the Gyalrong Tibetan dialect? 3) What are the younger generation’s perspectives on using digital technology to support GTL dissemination?

5.1 Motivations of Learners

One difference between learning an endangered language and learning the primary spoken language is that, in most cases, endangered languages can only be used in a small community or area or in a household (Qu 2010). Languages become endangered through language shifts caused by conquest, oppressive policies (Hinton 2011), or economic needs (Qu 2010, 2014). The rate with which minority languages are protected is far slower than the speed of language decline and consequently, language researchers must intensify their efforts to comprehensively document and study languages before they disappear.

Among the 67 Tibetan residents interviewed in this research, based on analysis of their intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, more than 60 % mentioned that although learning and using GTL helps them to understand and promote the traditional culture of their own people, they also use the language in their daily lives. However, as the frequency of using the language in education and workplace is low, people’s enthusiasm and initiative to learn the GTL have also decreased.

The motivations of learners encompass a blend of cultural pride, identity connection, and community engagement (Wiltshire, Bird, and Hardwick 2022). Participant A shared insight into the motivations of students for learning the GTL illustrating that the enthusiasm and involvement of students in Tibetan language classes indicated a genuine interest in learning their native language, based on their desire to connect with their cultural roots, communicate with older community members, and actively participate in the local community.

However, extrinsic motivations also play an essential role in GTL learning. Based on the interview results, one-third of the respondents believed that motivation to learn the GTL is based on the need for future study, work, or their own feelings of nationality (Hinton 2011). With the growth of tourism, GTL performance has become one of the local attractions, allowing GTL speakers to enhance their income levels by participating in language activities. In the context of limited resources, the interactivity and appeal of digital technology provide learners with opportunities to engage in their language learning journey. Concurrently, local government initiatives and educational institutions align with these motivations, fostering an environment that encourages and propels individual learning of GTL.

The motivations of learners are influenced by factors such as education, cultural preservation efforts (Wiltshire, Bird, and Hardwick 2022), and challenges and opportunities within interactive learning experiences (Galla 2018). Therefore, if learners can be correctly guided and actively encouraged, they can promote the transformation from thought to action, and actively learn the GTL and their traditional culture. Many individuals are curious and likely to be interested, which can actively enhance their sense of national identity, and integrate the establishment of a strong sense of social responsibility with their own development.

5.2 Positive Functions of Technology in Gyalrong Tibetan Language Dissemination

Cultural preservation is essential to safeguard the GTL and its cultural heritage (Casumbal-Salazar 2017). The Danba County government and local organisations have made significant efforts to promote the preservation of GTC; Interviewee B who works for the government mentioned that, “the government has been proactive in using digital platforms to raise awareness about the GTL and culture”.

The use of digital technology allows for the creation and dissemination of bilingual signage and documentation (Galla 2016; Meighan 2022; Sianturi, Lee, and Cumming 2023). Government units and businesses are employing technology to ensure that information is presented in both Tibetan and Chinese. Therefore, digital technology enables learners and speakers to notice and understand that language is an essential part of their minority culture (Cassels 2019; Galla 2016) which enhances visibility and accessibility, reinforcing the presence and importance of the GTL in public spaces.

At the same time, digital technology can be used to provide reliable professional guidance and a teaching basis for the further development of Gyalrong Tibetan and to implement cultural rescue for minority languages. Participant C mentioned that:

The better and more influential thing is the Wuming Buddhist Institute in Serta, which will tell about Tibetan culture in the process of explaining scriptures by living Buddhas and khenpos through new media and offline teaching, and call on everyone to understand the history and culture of the Tibetan language and learn the Tibetan mother tongue.

The interviewee highlighted cultural events like the Gyalrong Cultural Festival that serve as platforms for language and culture promotion, with digital technology playing a pivotal role in the events. Digital platforms such as social media, official websites, and mobile apps are utilised to advertise and coordinate these events (Meighan 2022). This broader reach enhances participation and engagement (Galla 2016), attracting individuals who might otherwise have limited exposure to the GTL (Cassels 2019; Mager 2018).

The integration of digital technology into cultural preservation has made a significant contribution to the spread of the GTL (Galla 2018). The use of such technology has enhanced accessibility, visibility, and engagement with digital event promotion and creative content sharing technologies (Mager et al. 2018). These positive features illustrate how technology can play a key role in maintaining and promoting minority languages, such as Gyalrong Tibetan.

5.3 Barriers and Concerns in Using Digital Technology

Minority languages and intangible cultural heritage could greatly benefit from digital technologies (Cassels 2019; Galla 2016; Mager et al. 2018; Sianturi, Lee and Cumming 2023). However, there remain challenges and complexities in the context of preserving minority languages through digital technology. During the interviews, barriers and concerns were noted by various stakeholders with respect to GTL preservation.

First, the interviewees expressed concerns about maintaining the authenticity and integrity of the GTL and culture while utilising digital technology. Some interviewees worried that digital media might inadvertently dilute or change the traditional linguistic structures and practices. Of the interviewees, 30 % highlighted that although the swiftness of new media dissemination and the broad reach of its audience facilitate the spread of culture, they may also lead to the distortion and misunderstanding of cultural content, meaning learners often cannot distinguish the authenticity and integrity of GTL dialect and writing. Furthermore, overuse of digital technology might change minority culture (Cassels 2019), modify the history of the minority community (Salazar 2007), and lead to language shifts (Hill 2002; Wiltshire, Bird, and Hardwick 2022).

Digital technology brings new opportunities to expose minority culture and peoples to the broader world (Cassels 2019; Mager 2018). Therefore, there exists a delicate balance between new technologies and traditional practice. Participant E said that, “we must carefully tread the line between using technology and preserving our priceless traditions.” Indeed, 70 % of the participants mentioned this aspect. Additionally, cultural boundaries make it difficult for members of out-groups to access authentic language use. Digitally presenting the true meaning and pronunciation of GTL is a key principle, while also considering cultural boundaries to ensure that the audience can easily understand the relevant culture.

Second, language resources are primarily composed of ethnic languages and regional dialects, but the production and protection of language heritage though digital means is primarily directed toward areas of ethnic and rural dialect (Fan 2018). However, many minority language resources are stored in a diffuse manner, and due to a lack of protection experience and professional technology, some written and sound resources have been lost (Tashi and Drudrup 2011; Zhao 2022). Furthermore, problems addressing the cost of new technologies are exacerbated given lack of infrastructure, geographic isolation (Galla 2018; Sianturi, Lee, and Cumming 2023) residents with low income (Sianturi, Lee, and Cumming 2023), and a higher proportion of older residents (Giglitto 2019). In the digital age, certain dialects may be marginalised or even erased due to insufficient support and resources, posing a challenge to language preservation.

Third, the digitalisation process has led to a diminishing wealth of native language education and minority and local languages. This digital divide poses significant challenges to the sustainable development involving minority languages. The digitisation process lags in these areas, and the popularisation and dissemination of concepts and technologies for the creation, preservation and utilisation of digital resources is slow (Fan 2018; Galla 2018). Participants pointed out that not all community members have access to language preservation efforts through digital technology, potentially leaving certain segments of the population behind. Retired interviewee D stated that, “not everyone has smartphones or computers in Danba county. For digital preservation of GTL, we need to consider those who might not benefit from digital initiatives”.

Furthermore, exploring barriers and concerns requires a thoughtful and culturally sensitive approach to the application of digital technology in preserving indigenous languages (Fan 2018; Zhao 2022; Zhu 2021). With such an approach, researchers are able to navigate this complex field and develop strategies that truly respect and protect GTL. To address these challenges, it is essential to formulate and implement strategies that integrate GLC into the digital preservation process. This involves constructing digital libraries tailored for the creation and distribution of locally-relevant information collections for minority languages, promoting participatory design of software and reducing language biases through collaboration with local communities.

5.4 Gyalrong Tibetan Language Education

With the revision of policy, problems related to Tibetan teachers in Danba County have gradually emerged. Over 74 % respondents mentioned that an impact of the school curriculum on Tibetan language proficiency is evident. Teenagers learn the Tibetan dialect with their parents from an early age, however, they use Mandarin in daily communication with their classmates and teachers in school which results in a serious deficit in the inheritance of the GTL.

Participant F, who was dedicated to language dissemination, also mentioned the reason why time spent teaching the traditional language decreased.

Parents think that it is not necessary for their children to know how to write Tibetan and speak Tibetan, as long as they can understand the Tibetan dialect of the family and have daily conversations at home. This is because they prefer to communicate with others in Mandarin or Sichuanese outside of the home.

Further, the research data show that teachers in Danba County pay limited attention to cultural protection and dissemination, as well as to resource development and innovation regarding school-based teaching materials for Gyalrong Tibetan. All of the educators interviewed pointed out that educational institutions lack sufficient GTL teachers or linguists to instruct students and other learners and therefore, the collection and selection of Tibetan intonation in Gyalrong is a major problem (Jia 2023; Qu 2014; Zhu 2021) in the preparation of textbooks. Moreover, Tibetan handwriting is more difficult than Chinese handwriting (Li and Nyima 2010). As current students receive Sichuanese and Mandarin, many students learn Tibetan as a second language.

Digital technology not only brings benefits and challenges to language preservation, but also contributes to indigenous language education (Galla 2016; Hafner, Chik, and Jones 2015). Language learning apps, online resources, and digital platforms can supplement school curricula and provide opportunities for students to engage with the GTL outside the classroom. Furthermore, digitally archived materials, such as audio and video recordings, can store information regarding the minority culture and social phenomena in detail, in a form that is easily presented to others (Galla 2018; Zhu 2021). However, the digital divide between different regions remains a challenge. Students in remote areas may lack access to necessary equipment and internet connectivity, exacerbating the unequal distribution of educational resources and impacting the preservation and transmission of minority languages.

Cultural content within digital language resources can foster a deeper connection to the cultural significance of language. New media and social networking platforms have provided new channels for the dissemination of minority cultures and languages; through these platforms, the languages and cultures of GTC can be more widely disseminated and showcased, thereby enhancing the sense of identity among community members with their own languages and cultures. Therefore, regarding protection of GTL, schools should consider integrating digital resources that offer interactive and engaging ways to learn Tibetan language.

Furthermore, interactive digital tools could be designed to enhance language learning experiences, making the process more appealing and effective for younger generations. For instance, by leveraging big data and artificial intelligence technologies, personalised learning plans could be tailored to students’ learning habits and abilities. Additionally, a short animation film of Tibetan culture could be developed to express the traditional national culture in a vivid and interesting way. This would not only enhance learning efficiency but also ensure that each student receives education resources suited to their needs, thereby better protecting and preserving minority languages. However, excessive reliance on digital technology may lead to students and teachers becoming overly dependent on technical tools, overlooking traditional teaching methods and practical activities. This could potentially undermine students’ actual proficiency in using their own language and culture, thereby affecting the natural transmission of the language.

Therefore, integrating digital technology into educational strategies for the preservation of minority languages has numerous potential benefits, including enhancing educational quality, expanding educational coverage, promoting cultural heritage and facilitating personalised learning. However, it also faces various challenges, such as threats to linguistic diversity, the digital divide, risks of cultural homogenisation, and issues of technological dependency. Additionally, establishing academic standards and technical guidelines for the protection of digital heritage in minority languages is crucial, along with developing comprehensive plans to build digital resources in these languages. Such resources include digital libraries, online courses and resources, e-learning apps, digital archives and open education resources.