Kinetic, isotherm, and mechanistic insights into Cu2+ and Ni2+ ions removal using benzaldehyde–modified chitosan beads in batch adsorption and fixed-bed column systems
-
Shun Chin Law
,
Sylvia Sandanasamy Sandanamsamy
Abstract
Batch adsorption and fixed-bed column studies were conducted to evaluate the potential of Schiff base-mediated chitosan beads for the adsorption of copper (Cu2+) and nickel (Ni2+) ions. Chitosan was crosslinked through a Schiff base reaction between the aldehyde groups of benzaldehyde and the amine groups of chitosan. Key parameters affecting the removal efficiency of chitosan-benzaldehyde beads were examined and optimised. Based on the kinetic analysis, it was found that chemisorption was the rate-controlling step during the adsorption of both heavy metal ions. This suggested that the electron-rich functional groups found on chitosan-benzaldehyde beads were able to form tetrahedral coordination complexes with Cu2+ and Ni2+ ions. Analysis using the isotherm models revealed that physisorption also contributed to the overall adsorption process. This study proposes that the adsorption of Cu2+ and Ni2+ ions onto chitosan-benzaldehyde progresses from monolayer chemisorption to multilayer physisorption, as supported by the well-fitted Freundlich isotherm model. The Langmuir isotherm model predicted maximum adsorption capacities of 81.76 mg/g for Cu2+ ions and 30.34 mg/g for Ni2+ ions, confirming the beads’ higher affinity for Cu2+ ions. This preference is influenced by the electron configuration of Cu2+ ions, which favours stronger bonds with hard ligands present in chitosan-benzaldehyde beads. The thermodynamic analysis revealed that the adsorption of Cu2+ and Ni2+ ions was spontaneous and favourable, while being endothermic in nature. The enthalpy values suggested that the adsorption process was predominantly physical, aligning with the observation made through the isotherm study. The spent adsorbent was desorbed successfully using disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid salt (Na2EDTA). However, the adsorbent was not reused due to the swelling of the beads in the desorption medium. Despite this limitation, the fixed-bed column studies demonstrated that the breakthrough data were well described by the Thomas and Yoon-Nelson models, implying good potential for industrial-scale application. Overall, findings from this study showed that chitosan-benzaldehyde beads are efficient and versatile adsorbents for heavy metal remediation.
Funding source: Short-term Grant Scheme
Award Identifier / Grant number: Project number: 1001/PKIMIA/843051
Acknowledgments
The authors express gratitude for the financial support received from Universiti Sains Malaysia under the Short-term Grant Scheme (Project number: 1001/PKIMIA/843051). The co-author, Shun Chin Law, would like to extend her appreciation to MyBrain15 scholarship for funding her post-graduate study.
-
Research ethics: Not applicable.
-
Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individuals included in this study, or their legal guardians or wards.
-
Author contributions: Data Collection and Processing – S.C.L.; Funding Acquisition and Supervision – W.S.W.N.; Analysis and Interpretation – M.A.K.M.H., V.P., T.B., M.M., S.S.S., P.V.S.; Writing – Review & Editing – S.F.
-
Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.
-
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
-
Research funding: Universiti Sains Malaysia under the Short-term Grant Scheme (Project number: 1001/PKIMIA/843051).
-
Data availability: Not applicable.
References
1. Jadaa, W.; Mohammed, H. Heavy Metals–Definition, Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Releasing into Ecosystems, Toxicity, and Removal Methods–An Overview Study. J. Ecol. Eng. 2023, 24, 249–271; https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/162955.Search in Google Scholar
2. Zhang, Y.; Duan, X. Chemical Precipitation of Heavy Metals from Wastewater by Using the Synthetical Magnesium Hydroxy Carbonate. Water Sci. Technol. 2020, 81, 1130–1136; https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2020.208.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
3. Girish, C. R. Removal of Heavy Metals from Pharmaceutical Wastewater by Adsorption Using Agricultural Waste: A Review. Int. J. Pharm. Res. 2020, 12, 228–236; https://doi.org/10.31838/ijpr/2020.12.04.038.Search in Google Scholar
4. Adewoye, S. O.; Adenigba, V. O.; Adewoye, A. O.; Adagunodo, T. A. Bioremediation of Heavy Metals from Pharmaceutical Industry Sewages Using Bimetallic Nanoparticles of Eichorniacrassipes. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2021, 655, 1–11; https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/655/1/012021.Search in Google Scholar
5. Liu, Y.; Khan, A.; Wang, Z.; Chen, Y.; Zhu, S.; Sun, T.; Liang, D.; Yu, H. Upcycling of Electroplating Sludge to Prepare Erdite-Bearing Nanorods for the Adsorption of Heavy Metals from Electroplating Wastewater Effluent. Water 2020, 12, 1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/W12041027.Search in Google Scholar
6. Rahman, M. L.; Fui, C. J.; Sarjadi, M. S.; Arshad, S. E.; Musta, B.; Abdullah, M. H.; Sarkar, S. M.; O’Reilly, E. J. Poly(Amidoxime) Ligand Derived from Waste Palm Fiber for the Removal of Heavy Metals from Electroplating Wastewater. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 34541–34556; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09462-0.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
7. Liu, Y.; Wang, H.; Cui, Y.; Chen, N. Removal of Copper Ions from Wastewater: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 3885; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053885.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
8. Jomova, K.; Alomar, S. Y.; Nepovimova, E.; Kuca, K.; Valko, M. Heavy Metals: Toxicity and Human Health Effects. Arch. Toxicol. 2025, 99, 153–209; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-024-03903-2.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
9. Taylor, A. A.; Tsuji, J. S.; McArdle, M. E.; Adams, W. J.; Goodfellow, W. L.Jr. Recommended Reference Values for Risk Assessment of Oral Exposure to Copper. Risk Anal. 2023, 43, 211–218; https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13906.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
10. World Health Organization. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality (GDWQ). Fourth Edition, Incorporating the First and Second Addendum; World Health Organization: Geneva, 2004. 2022; Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.Search in Google Scholar
11. Rahman, A.; Haque, M. A.; Ghosh, S.; Shinu, P.; Attimarad, M.; Kobayashi, G. Modified Shrimp-Based Chitosan as an Emerging Adsorbent Removing Heavy Metals (Chromium, Nickel, Arsenic, and Cobalt) from Polluted Water. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2431; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032431.Search in Google Scholar
12. Begum, W.; Rai, S.; Banerjee, S.; Bhattacharjee, S.; Mondal, M. H.; Bhattarai, A.; Saha, B. A Comprehensive Review on the Sources, Essentiality and Toxicological Profile of Nickel. RSC Adv. 2022, 12, 9139–9153; https://doi.org/10.1039/D2RA00378C.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
13. Fu, Z.; Xi, S. The Effects of Heavy Metals on Human Metabolism. Toxicol. Mech. Methods 2019, 30, 167–176; https://doi.org/10.1080/15376516.2019.1701594.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
14. EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain CONTAM. Scientific Opinion on the Risks to Public Health Related to the Presence of Nickel in Food and Drinking Water. EFSA J. 2015, 13, 4002; https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4002.Search in Google Scholar
15. Bezzina, J. P.; Robshaw, T.; Dawson, R.; Ogden, M. D. Single Metal Isotherm Study of the Ion Exchange Removal of Cu(II), Fe(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) from Synthetic Acetic Acid Leachate. Chem. Eng. J. 2020, 394, 124862; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.124862.Search in Google Scholar
16. Kavaiya, A. R.; Raval, H. D. Highly Selective and Antifouling Reverse Osmosis Membrane by Crosslinkers-Induced Surface Modification. Environ. Technol. 2021, 43 (14), 2155–2166; https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2020.1869316.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
17. Liu, Y.; Ke, X.; Wu, X.; Ke, C.; Chen, R.; Chen, X.; Zheng, X.; Jin, Y.; Van Der Bruggen, B. Simultaneous Removal of Trivalent Chromium and Hexavalent Chromium from Soil Using a Modified Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis System. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54, 13304–13313; https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c04105.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
18. Castro-Muñoz, R.; González-Melgoza, L. L.; García-Depraect, O. Ongoing Progress on Novel Nanocomposite Membranes for the Separation of Heavy Metals from Contaminated Water. Chemosphere 2021, 270, 129421; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129421.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
19. Brinkmann, T.; Giner Santonja, G.; Yukseler, H.; Roudier, S.; Delgado Sancho, L. Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Common Waste Water and Waste Treatment/Management Systems in the Chemical Sector; Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control); EUR 28112 EN; Publications Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2016; JRC103096; https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC103096.Search in Google Scholar
20. Fraiha, O.; Hadoudi, N.; Zaki, N.; Salhi, A.; Amhamdi, H.; Akichouh, E. H.; Mourabit, F.; Ahari, M. H. Comprehensive Review on the Adsorption of Pharmaceutical Products from Wastewater by Clay Materials. Desalination Water Treat. 2024, 317, 100114; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100114.Search in Google Scholar
21. Patel, H. Fixed-Bed Column Adsorption Study: A Comprehensive Review. Appl. Water Sci. 2019, 9, 1–17; https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-019-0927-7.Search in Google Scholar
22. Pistocchi, A.; Andersen, H.; Bertanza, G.; Brander, A.; Choubert, J. M.; Cimbritz, M.; Drewes, J.; Koehler, C.; Krampe, J.; Launay, M.; Nielsen, P.; Obermaier, N.; Stanev, S.; Thornberg, D. Treatment of Micropollutants in Wastewater: Balancing Effectiveness, Costs and Implications. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 850, 157593; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157593.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
23. Chakraborty, R.; Asthana, A.; Singh, A. K.; Jain, B.; Susan, A. B. H. Adsorption of Heavy Metal Ions by Various Low-Cost Adsorbents: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 2020, 102, 342–379; https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2020.1722811.Search in Google Scholar
24. Atangana, E.; Ajiboye, T. O.; Mafolasire, A. A.; Ghosh, S.; Hakeem, B. Adsorption of Organic Pollutants from Wastewater Using Chitosan-Based Adsorbents. Polymers 2025, 17, 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17040502.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
25. Iqbal, F.; Upadhyay, A.; Tehrani, R.; Rowles, L. S. Evaluating Environmental and Economic Sustainability of Engineered Chitosan Particles for Water Treatment. Clean. Mater. 2025, 100319; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2025.100319.Search in Google Scholar
26. Upadhyay, U.; Sreedhar, I.; Singh, S. A.; Patel, C. M.; Anitha, K. L. Recent Advances in Heavy Metal Removal by Chitosan-Based Adsorbents. Carbohydr. Polym. 2021, 251, 117000; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117000.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
27. Shankar, S.; Joshi, S.; Srivastava, R. K. A Review on Heavy Metal Biosorption Utilizing Modified Chitosan. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2023, 195, 1350; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11963-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
28. Francis, A. O.; Zaini, M. A. A.; Muhammad, I. M.; Abdulsalam, S.; El-Nafaty, U. A. Physicochemical Modification of Chitosan Adsorbent: A Perspective. Biomass Conv. Bioref. 2023, 13, 5557–5575; https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-01599-3.Search in Google Scholar
29. Yadav, M.; Kaushik, B.; Rao, G. K.; Srivastava, C. M.; Vaya, D. Advances and Challenges in the Use of Chitosan and Its Derivatives in Biomedical Fields: A Review. Carbohydr. Polym. Technol. Appl. 2023, 5, 100323; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carpta.2023.100323.Search in Google Scholar
30. Hussain, S.; Berry, S. A Review Study on Green Synthesis of Chitosan Derived Schiff Bases and Their Applications. Carbohydr. Res. 2024, 535, 109002; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2023.109002.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
31. Iacopetta, D.; Catalano, A.; Ceramella, J.; Mariconda, A.; D’Amato, A.; Checconi, P.; Aquaro, S.; Longo, P.; Sinicropi, M. S. Chitosan-Based Schiff Vases (CSBs) and Their Metal Complexes: Promising Antimicrobial Agents. Molecules 2025, 30, 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30020207.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
32. Gao, W.; Du, L.; Li, P.; Jiao, W.; Liu, Y. A Highly Efficient Synthesis of Benzaldehyde by Ozonolysis of Styrene in a Rotating Packed Bed. Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif. 2020, 158, 108166; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2020.108166.Search in Google Scholar
33. Zaltariov, M. F.; Cazacu, M. Coordination Compounds with Siloxane/Silane-Containing Ligands Capable of Self-Assembly at Nano/Micro Scale in Solid State and in Solution. In Advances in Inorganic Chemistry, 1st ed; Academic Press: United States, Vol. 76, 2020; pp 115–156.10.1016/bs.adioch.2020.03.003Search in Google Scholar
34. Damiri, F.; Bachra, Y.; Bounacir, C.; Laaraibi, A.; Berrada, M. Synthesis and Characterization of Lyophilized Chitosan-Based Hydrogels Cross-Linked with Benzaldehyde for Controlled Drug Release. J. Chem. 2020 (1), 8747639; https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8747639.Search in Google Scholar
35. Sohaimi, K. S. A.; Iberahim, N. I.; Ghani, A. A.; Zamrud, Z.; Heng, C. W. Ammonium Adsorption-Desorption Using Rice Husk Biochar. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2021, 765, 012061; https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/765/1/012061.Search in Google Scholar
36. Yang, Z.; Wang, Y.; Tang, Y. Synthesis and Adsorption Properties for Metal Ions of Mesocyclic Diamine-Grafted Chitosan-Crown Ether. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2000, 75, 1255–1260; https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(20000307)75:10<1255::AID-APP6>3.0.CO;2-5.10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(20000307)75:10<1255::AID-APP6>3.0.CO;2-5Search in Google Scholar
37. Tan, Y. N.; Lee, P. P.; Chen, W. N. Dual Extraction of Crustacean and Fungal Chitosan from a Single Mucor circinelloides Fermentation. Fermentation 2020, 6, 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation6020040.Search in Google Scholar
38. Niyat, S. G.; Hargalani, F. Z.; Emtyazjoo, M.; Yazdian, F.; Moradi, A. M. A Novel Synergistic and Eco-Friendly Approach for Efficient Crude Oil Removal from Water Using ZnO/g-C3N4/Chitosan Nanostructure and Spirulina Algae. Sci. Rep. 2025, 15, 29932; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-15117-2.Search in Google Scholar
39. Dutta, S. K.; Amin, M. K.; Ahmed, J.; Elias, M.; Mahiuddin, M. Removal of Toxic Methyl Orange by A Cost-Free and Eco-Friendly Adsorbent: Mechanism, Phytotoxicity, Thermodynamics, and Kinetics. S. Afr. J. Chem. Eng. 2022, 40, 195–208; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2022.03.006.Search in Google Scholar
40. Ali, Z.; Ahmad, R.; Khan, A.; Adalata, B. Complexation of Hg(II) Ions with a Functionalized Adsorbent: A Thermodynamic and Kinetic Approach. Prog. Nucl. Energy 2018, 105, 146–152; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2018.01.004.Search in Google Scholar
41. Ouyang, D.; Zhuo, Y.; Hu, L.; Zeng, Q.; Hu, Y.; He, Z. Research on Adsorption Behavior of Heavy Metal Ions by Porous Material Prepared with Silicate Tailings. Minerals 2019, 9, 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9050291.Search in Google Scholar
42. Inglezakis, V. J.; Stylianou, M. A.; Gkantzou, D.; Loizidou, M. D. Removal of Pb(II) from Aqueous Solutions by Using Clinoptilolite and Bentonite as Adsorbents. Desalination 2007, 210, 248–256; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.05.049.Search in Google Scholar
43. Crini, G.; Badot, P. M. Application of Chitosan, a Natural Aminopolysaccharide, for Dye Removal from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption Processes Using Batch Studies: A Review of Recent Literature. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2008, 33, 399–447; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2007.11.001.Search in Google Scholar
44. Sahoo, T. R.; Prelot, B. Adsorption Processes for the Removal of Contaminants from Wastewater: The Perspective Role of Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology. In Nanomaterials for the Detection and Removal of Wastewater Pollutants; Elsevier Inc.: Netherlands, 2020; pp 161–222.10.1016/B978-0-12-818489-9.00007-4Search in Google Scholar
45. Ho, Y. S.; Ofomaja, A. E. Kinetic Studies of Copper Ion Adsorption on Palm Kernel Fibre. J. Hazard. Mater. 2006, 137, 1796–1802; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.05.023.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
46. Najafi, M.; Yousefi, Y.; Rafati, A. A. Synthesis, Characterization and Adsorption Studies of Several Heavy Metal Ions on Amino-Functionalized Silica Nano Hollow Sphere and Silica Gel. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2012, 85, 193–205; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2011.10.011.Search in Google Scholar
47. Ray, S. S.; Gusain, R.; Kumar, N. Adsorption Equilibrium Isotherms, Kinetics and Thermodynamics. In Carbon Nanomaterials as Adsorbents for Water Purification; Elsevier: Netherlands, 2020; pp 101–118.10.1016/B978-0-12-821959-1.00005-2Search in Google Scholar
48. Alkurdi, S. S. A.; Al-Juboori, R. A.; Bundschuh, J.; Bowtell, L.; Marchuk, A. Inorganic Arsenic Species Removal from Water Using Bone Char: A Detailed Study on Adsorption Kinetic and Isotherm Models Using Error Functions Analysis. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 405, 124112; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124112.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
49. Ahmad, Z. U.; Yao, L.; Wang, J.; Gang, D. D.; Islam, F.; Lian, Q.; Zappi, M. E. Neodymium Embedded Ordered Mesoporous Carbon (OMC) for Enhanced Adsorption of Sunset Yellow: Characterizations, Adsorption Study and Adsorption Mechanism. Chem. Eng. J. 2019, 359, 814–826; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.11.174.Search in Google Scholar
50. Tran, H. N.; You, S. J.; Hosseini-Bandegharaei, A.; Chao, H. P. Mistakes and Inconsistencies Regarding Adsorption of Contaminants from Aqueous Solutions: A Critical Review. Water Res. 2017, 120, 88–116; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.04.014.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
51. Ocampo-Pérez, R.; Rivera-Utrilla, J.; Gómez-Pacheco, C.; Sánchez-Polo, M.; López-Peñalver, J. J. Kinetic Study of Tetracycline Adsorption on Sludge-Derived Adsorbents in Aqueous Phase. Chem. Eng. J. 2012, 213, 88–96; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.09.072.Search in Google Scholar
52. Reddy, K. R.; Xie, T.; Dastgheibi, S. Removal of Heavy Metals from Urban Stormwater Runoff Using Different Filter Materials. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2014, 2, 282–292; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2013.12.020.Search in Google Scholar
53. Sahu, O.; Singh, N. Significance of Bioadsorption Process on Textile Industry Wastewater. In The Impact and Prospects of Green Chemistry for Textile Technology; Woodhead Publishing: United Kingdom, 2019; pp 367–416.10.1016/B978-0-08-102491-1.00013-7Search in Google Scholar
54. Liu, C.; Lei, X.; Liang, X.; Jia, J.; Wang, L. Visible Sequestration of Cu2+ Ions Using Amino-Functionalized Cotton Fiber. RSC Adv. 2017, 7, 9744–9753; https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra28810c.Search in Google Scholar
55. Hampden-Smith, M. J.; Kodas, T. T. Chemical Vapor Deposition of Copper from Cu(I) Compounds. InChem. Met. CVD VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH: Germany, 2007; pp. 239–302.10.1002/9783527615858.ch5Search in Google Scholar
56. Blanco, C. A. Coordination Abilities in Aqueous 1:1 Metal Chelates of 1,3-Dicarbonylic Ligands: Absolute Hardness and Absolute Electronegativity. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1998, 2, 2741–2744; https://doi.org/10.1039/a804495c.Search in Google Scholar
57. Chaithra, B. A.; Pooja, D. A.; Priyanka, H. D.; Harshitha, M. H.; kamat, V.; Anush, S. M.; Prashantha, K. Magnetic Chitosan Schiff Base Functionaliized with MoS2 for the Effective Removal of Cu (II) and Cr (VI) Ions from Aqueous Solution. Hybrid Adv. 2025, 100556; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hybadv.2025.100556.Search in Google Scholar
58. Barbosa, R. F.; Shyam, S.; Misra, S.; Mitra, S. K.; Rosa, D. S. Chitosan Hydrogels Crosslinked with Glutaraldehyde for Potential Toxic Elements Removal: Batch and Purification Device Analysis. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2025, 142, e57539; https://doi.org/10.1002/app.57539.Search in Google Scholar
59. Mohammed, A. E. M.; Al-Harby, N. F.; Alrasheedi, M.; Ibrahim, S. M.; Mohamed, N. A. Cyanoguanidine-Modified Chitosan as an Efficacious Adsorbent for Removing Cupric Ions from Aquatic Solutions: Kinetics, Isotherms, and Mechanisms. Inorganics 2025, 13, 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics13040116.Search in Google Scholar
60. Moralez, L.; Nakasu, P.; Hallett, J. Preparation of Hybrid β-Chitosan–Squid Pen Protein Hydrogel Beads by Ionic Liquid Regeneration for Adsorption of Copper (II) and Zinc (II) from Wastewater. Soft Matter 2025, 21, 2480–2492; https://doi.org/10.1039/D4SM01300J.Search in Google Scholar
61. Benettayeb, A.; Morsli, A.; Elwakeel, K. Z.; Hamza, M. F.; Guibal, E. Recovery of Heavy Metal Ions Using Magnetic Glycine-Modified Chitosan–Application to Aqueous Solutions and Tailing Leachate. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11 (18), 8377; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188377.Search in Google Scholar
62. Babakhani, A.; Sartaj, M. Optimization of Nickel (II) Adsorption by sSdium Tripolyphosphate Crosslinked Chitosan Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Sustain. Chem. Environ. 2023, 2, 100019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scenv.2023.100019.Search in Google Scholar
63. Abdel-Ghani, N. T.; Rawash, E. S. A.; El-Chaghaby, G. A. Equilibrium and Kinetic Study for the Adsorption of p-Nitrophenol from Wastewater Using Olive Cake Based Activated Carbon. Glob. J. Environ. Sci. Manag. 2016, 2, 11–18; https://doi.org/10.7508/gjesm.2016.01.002.Search in Google Scholar
64. Wang, J.; Guo, X. Adsorption Isotherm Models: Classification, Physical Meaning, Application and Solving Method. Chemosphere 2020, 258, 127279; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127279.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
65. Ohale, P. E.; Onu, C. E.; Ohale, N. J.; Oba, S. N. Adsorptive Kinetics, Isotherm and Thermodynamic Analysis of Fishpond Effluent Coagulation Using Chitin Derived Coagulant from Waste Brachyura Shell. Chem. Eng. J. Adv. 2020, 4, 100036; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceja.2020.100036.Search in Google Scholar
66. Al-Ghouti, M. A.; Da’ana, D. A. Guidelines for the Use and Interpretation of Adsorption Isotherm Models: A Review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020, 393, 122383; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122383.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
67. Gonçalves dos Santos, M.; Destefani Paquini, L.; Leite Quintela, P. H.; Roberto Profeti, L. P.; Guimarães, D. Insights into Kinetics and Thermodynamics for Adsorption Methylene Blue Using Ecofriendly Zeolites Materials. ACS Omega 2025, 10, 20326–20340; https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.4c11718.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
68. Girish, C. R. Determination of Thermodynamic Parameters in Adsorption Studies: A Review. Chem. Pap. 2025, 79, 5687–5706; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-025-04218-x.Search in Google Scholar
69. Allahkarami, E.; Allahkarami, E.; Azadmehr, A.; Shahrabadi, M. E. Kinetics and Statistical Physics Modeling of Heavy Metal Ions Adsorption onto Functionalized Pyrite Composite: Experimental and Modeling. Results Chem. 2025, 17, 102536; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2025.102536.Search in Google Scholar
70. Fallah, N.; Taghizadeh, M. Continuous Fixed-Bed Adsorption of Mo(VI) from Aqueous Solutions by Mo(VI)-IIP: Breakthrough Curves Analysis and Mathematical Modeling. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 104079; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104079.Search in Google Scholar
71. Allen, S. J.; Gan, Q.; Matthews, R.; Johnson, P. A. Mass Transfer Processes in the Adsorption of Basic Dyes by Peanut Hulls. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2005, 44 (6), 1942–1949; https://doi.org/10.1021/ie0489507.Search in Google Scholar
72. Fagbayigbo, B. O.; Opeolu, B. O.; Fatoki, O. S. Adsorption of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) from Water Using Leaf Biomass (Vitis vinifera) in a Fixed-Bed Column Study. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng. 2020, 18 (2), 221–233; https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-020-00456-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
73. Ahmed, M. J.; Hameed, B. H. Removal of Emerging Pharmaceutical Contaminants by Adsorption in a Fixed-Bed Column: A Review. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2018, 149, 257–266; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.12.012.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
74. Webster, A.; Halling, M. D.; Grant, D. M. Metal Complexation of Chitosan and Its Glutaraldehyde Cross-Linked Derivative. Carbohydr. Res. 2007, 342 (9), 1189–1201; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2007.03.008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
75. Conry, R. R. Copper: Inorganic & Coordination Chemistry. In Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, 1st ed; John Wiley & Sons: United States, 2006.Search in Google Scholar
76. Collinson, S. R.; Schröder, M. Nickel: Inorganic & Coordination Chemistry. In Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, 1st ed; John Wiley & Sons: United States, 2006.10.1002/0470862106.ia150Search in Google Scholar
© 2025 IUPAC & De Gruyter
