Managing future cities: media and information and communication technologies in the context of change
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Jacek Mikucki
Jacek Mikucki is assistant professor at University of Warsaw (Poland), PhD. He has studied audiovisual culture, urban communications and new forms of media, including startups and SMEs in Germany and Poland. Through his PhD dissertation, he contributed to the theory of high technologies and media infrastructure in a smart city. He has a background in qualitative studies – data collection and coding of findings from semi-structured interviews. He teaches at the University of Warsaw, Poland. He has been involved in several projects on media and communication in smart cities. His research interests new forms of media, local communication, electronic media and audiovisual arts.
Abstract
Purpose
The goal of this paper is to examine the usage of information technologies and media in two European case studies – Berlin and Warsaw. Findings from the research can be used to create urban policies and media infrastructure design, based on the different strategies of two European cities. Berlin and Warsaw have taken different paths in implementing the smart city concept, adapting the idea to their economic, historical, and social realities. Media are understood here as human-machine and machine-machine communications, and also in terms of both physical and digital media infrastructure.
Methodology
The research aims at examining strategies and institutions (both private and public) in light of the practical implementation of smart solutions by City Hall authorities. The study combines analysis of grey literature (news reports, corporate strategies, City Hall documentation) with qualitative research: 30 semi-structured interviews conducted with local municipalities and city planners in both cities.
Findings
Findings are likely to provide evidence potential drivers and barriers to the implementation of smart city solutions. The results provide evidence that media and information technologies in the city are implemented due to the data policies of entities that usually implement smart city strategy independently. The task of city authorities is to guarantee access to basic infrastructure, which is the basis for creating other solutions by private entities.
Practical implications
The empirical research is likely to provide evidence that Berlin and Warsaw have not yet fully appreciated the solutions based on communication between machines, but there is increasing use of ‘ad hoc’ solutions.
Social implications
This study may be used as a source of information for smart city managers, media infrastructure, and urban strategy with a focus on residents and information and communication technologies. Findings are addressed to media and urban experts and scholars, as well as sociologists, political scientists, engineers, ICT specialists, policy-makers, city managers and citizens.
Value
The study shows the growing importance of mobile devices, media-like services and ICT have resulted in changes in City Hall’s development strategies and new theoretical approaches through which the cities might be analysed. This study finds that networks, platforms and media infrastructure have been used to describe new ways of communication between city authorities, citizens and machines. It has been argued that fostering an advanced media infrastructure (soft and hard) has the potential to create “The Future City”.
1 Introduction
It is estimated that over 55 % of the world’s population lives in cities, and this figure will rise to 68 % by 2050 (United Nations 2018). The growing number of city dwellers, together with the progressing changes in the social, cultural, and technological spheres, is a challenge for local government structures that are striving for sustainable development, such as in the sphere of innovation, economics or providing all residents with access to education and health services. The activities of local authorities are also focused on the integration of the population, especially because of ethnic, religious, linguistic, and socio-economic diversity. Besides, representatives of towns and cities work for the safety of the inhabitants and environmental protection. Local authorities facilitate the inhabitants’ access to public services (offices, public transport, etc.), which is to improve the functioning of people in the urban structure. Media and information technologies play an essential role in a modern city. They allow for direct interaction of the authorities with the inhabitants, as well as monitoring of current events. The above-mentioned actions, as well as the selection of tools for their implementation, have their place in the strategies and policies of local authorities. In the context of changing communication models and the development of media and technology, the challenges posed to modern cities are increasingly being analyzed based on the smart city concept.
Media and information and communication technologies (ICT) are changing contemporary cities. With the fast-growing digital city layer, there is also a need to build digital solutions and services not only for citizens but also for city authorities. The potential of mobile communication, smartphones, geolocation, social media, data, and machines has become a subject of the initiative by city authorities around the world. Creating and developing infrastructure for communication and media is reflected in strategies and actions that are aimed at improving the lives of residents, including communications, pro-ecological behavior, and public involvement in city governance. Cities are driven by information and data; media are used to acquire, process, and present them. In Europe – Stockholm, Hamburg, Vienna, Tallinn, and Florence, take action to implement and develop smart city policies. In addition to this, European institutions, such as the European Commission and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, encourage European regions and urban agglomerations to become smart. Smart city means creating a friendly and citizen-centered urban space. The media play the role of both the objective and the tools to implement activities in areas such as innovation, education, economics, health care, environmental protection, participation, lifestyle, and so on. The publication takes a multidimensional view of the media – on the one hand, they are treated as resources/tools (for the realization of the strategic goals of the smart city) and, on the other hand, as objectives (one of the specific goals) of the smart city. The media are understood as a channel and medium that uses information and communication technologies to fulfill specific functions (Mikucki 2021).
Due to the multidimensionality of the smart city concept and contemporary media definitions, as well as the multitude of contextual factors (international, national, and local politics, as well as history, level of technological sophistication, level of economic development, etc.), two European capitals were selected for the case study. The decision to analyze the phenomenon in detail’ based on the cases of Berlin and Warsaw was influenced by:
elements demonstrating similarities, including, in particular, the geographical location (Central and Eastern Europe), history (contact with communism), aspirations of Berlin and Warsaw regarding smart city development, the presence of international companies and media groups, and the highest level of smart city implementation on a national scale (both in the case of Germany and Poland);
elements indicative of differences, including in particular different levels of governance (Germany as a federal state, Poland as a unitary state), differences in a population level, differences in the level of technological advancement, differences in the quality-of-life ranking;
access to sources, including the possibility of conducting a detailed analysis of the strategy and in-depth interviews with experts in both Berlin and Warsaw.
Berlin is the capital of Germany with a population of over 3.5 million, making it Germany’s largest and one of Europe’s most populous cities. Berlin’s population is expected to increase by 250,000 inhabitants by 2030. The city has undergone two major phases of urban transformation: after 1945 and after 1990. Since the 1990 urban transformation, trillions of euros have been spent on merging the previously divided Berlin, implementing large-scale urban renewal and development, and thoroughly modernizing the infrastructure. Poland’s capital and thus its largest city is Warsaw with almost 2 million inhabitants. Both cities suffered during the Second World War – many buildings and roads were destroyed. This forced changes to the cities’ architecture and infrastructure but was influenced by the German and Polish regimes of the time and the Marshall Plan, which defined the spheres of influence of the USSR and Western countries in Central and Eastern Europe. Berlin, although was half under the influence of the USSR, developed rapidly and dynamically, mainly due to its access to resources and Western innovations. Warsaw, still more damaged than Berlin after the Second World War, took a long time to rebuild and was dependent on the Soviet Union until 1989.
Moreover, while Berlin and Warsaw see potential in modern communication solutions, for various reasons do not invest in the development of media infrastructure or do not yet see the benefits of using it. However, the implementation of the concept is also influenced by other entities (companies, organizations, and residents), which do not have to act exclusively based on a defined strategy. There is a lot of theory-based research in urban media research, so there is a need for more empirical research that identifies concrete action strategies, implementation methods, or design layouts for urban media infrastructure. The author noticed a gap in research in this area, especially in the dimension of systematic studies in Berlin and Warsaw, so he decided to investigate smart city strategy in terms of the role and use of media in the city. In addition, methodology and concepts are calling for more follow-ups in different cities. Therefore, the study of selected European capitals can add value to further research on cities both in Europe and worldwide.
The study combines analysis of grey literature (news reports, corporate strategies, City Hall documentation) with qualitative research: 30 semi-structured interviews (15 respondents in each city) conducted in 2017 (July-October) with local municipalities and city planners in both cities. This was the time when these interviews were conducted, and they were later coded and described. The research material is part of a larger research project and some of the results have already been disseminated and this article is the next stage of their publicity.
Findings are likely to provide evidence of potential drivers and barriers to the implementation of smart city solutions. The qualitative research was based on an interview scenario, which contained 19 questions. Representatives of municipal authorities, consulting companies, and private and media organizations were invited to participate in the study. The results of the research from the in-depth interviews were coded according to the developed key concerning the repetitiveness of emerging slogans and concepts – this action aimed to notice possible regularities and verify the research hypothesis (Saldana 2016). The author developed the interview questionnaire (in the Appendix) using the basic literature on qualitative research techniques, including, among others, the works of John W. Creswell (2013), Matthew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, and Johnny Saldana (2014), as well as Lizzie Jackson and Michał Głowacki (2019). The statements of individual respondents have been marked with abbreviations and numbers accordingly: in the case of Berlin, it is BLN (e.g., BLN 01), while in Warsaw, it is WAW (e.g., WAW 01). The interviews were conducted by the author of this article in Polish for the Warsaw respondents and in English for the Berlin specialists. The transcription of the interviews, their translation, and coding were also done by the author.
The salient questions to be addressed are: In what ways do City Hall authorities in Berlin and Warsaw approach change in smart city solutions? How do the smart cities experts in Berlin and Warsaw see the future role of managing urban communications? How these can be explained? And how universal they are?
The research hypothesis is that the use of media in smart city Berlin and smart city Warsaw are highly related to practical implementation and the cultural societal contexts, rather than specifically defined strategies.
2 Theoretical framework
To go forward to the creation of the future city it is necessary to implement the strategy which drives to build the proper infrastructure and services. In the context of changing communication models and the development of media and technology, the challenges facing modern cities are increasingly being analyzed based on the smart city concept. Understanding the concept of smart city requires a comprehension of the complexity and diversity of this phenomenon. It is extremely difficult to compare the definitions of smart cities that have developed in recent years (Dameri 2013; Winkowska et al. 2019). The concept of smart city has many meanings – for this reason, it should be studied with many components (Gil-Garcia et al. 2015). Doug Washburn, along with other researchers, claims that a smart city is based on the use of so-called smart computing to make critical elements of the city’s infrastructure and services – city administration, education, healthcare, public safety, real estate, transportation, and utilities – more intelligent, interconnected, and efficient (Washburn et al. 2010). Already in the first concepts of smart cities, the importance to focus on the need to develop an appropriate ICT infrastructure as the main factor leading to the dynamic development of cities was recognized (Caragliu and Del Bo 2016). According to Ilaria Oberti and Angela Silvia Pavesi (2013), the diffusion of mobile devices and the Internet in urban planning and the need to protect the environment from pollution and excessive consumption has had an impact on the spread of the smart city concept. Other researchers consider the concept in terms of smartphones, mobile devices, sensors, and embedded systems and notice its application in smart environments, smart meters, and smart hardware that sustain the “intelligence” of the city (Schaffers et al. 2011).
Focusing on the communication aspect of smart cities, regular research is conducted on the diverse role of media in the city (Georgiou 2013; Sharif and Pokharel 2022) the role of social media in the city (Kowalik 2021) and even special academic courses on media and innovation in smart cities are created. Interest in the smart city concept is shown not only by academia but also by private sectors, for example, companies such as Microsoft, IBM, or Cisco.
As noted by the research team led by Rudolf Giffinger, the term smart city is used interchangeably to describe many aspects of the city – from information technology to the level of education (smartness) of its inhabitants (Giffinger et al. 2007). The authors listed six areas/objectives of smart city: economics, mobility, environment, people, life, and management. Each city may have a different understanding of the objectives and the factors that may implement smart living differently, depending on historical, geographical, economic, social, religious, and other conditions. Whereas the six areas of smart city actions there can find different definitions where the emphasis will be on individual actions.
Albert Meijer and Manuel Pedro Rodríguez Bolívar (2016) listed three types of ‘ideal’ definitions of the smart city to smart people, smart cooperation, and smart technology. Taewoo Nam and Theresa A. Pardo (Nam and Theresa 2011) have reached similar conclusions in their research. According to these authors, smart cities form three dimensions respectively: people (creativity, diversity, and education), institutions (governance and politics), and technologies (infrastructure, virtual and mobile technologies). The graphical representation of the three dimensions of smart city presents in Figure 1.
Levels of smart city analysis: people, institutions, technologies. Source: T. Nam, T.A. Pardo, Conceptualizing Smart City with Dimensions of Technology, People, and Institutions, The Proceedings of the 12th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research, 12–15.06.2011. 286.
In terms of the human factor in smart cities, the focus is on citizens, and investment in human capital is the main driver of urbanization processes. The city’s policy is to focus on the creation of well-educated smart citizens. A well-educated urban population will result in high-quality services and lifestyles (Florida 2012).
The institutional dimension of smart city involves a focus on governance between the institutions and stakeholders, which can be private sector companies, organizations, urban communities, etc. A smart community should be defined as a wider community of people, from the level of small towns to the national level, which has a common or shared interest (Ilhami et al. 2022; Nam and Theresa 2011). Citizens, organizations, and institutions are working with the IT sector in the name of a common idea.
In the technological dimension, the emphasis is on innovation and tools that strengthen urbanization processes. The city is also referred to as a technocracy and as a digital city or an intelligent city. Nam and Pardo have noticed that both terms are different for real and virtual cities. The digital city engages every function of the city, such as working, living, moving, recreation, or environment. The term ‘smart city’, on the other hand, is intended to highlight the phenomenon of technological transfers, product development, and technological innovation and support for creative companies (Kourtit et al. 2012). In the technological dimension, the term is closely linked to the ICT sector, which is treated as the ‘backbone’ of the city.
Bearing in mind the multitude of views and approaches, the author has systematized the understanding of the concept. He adopted a definition according to which smart city is a city that uses information and communication technologies and other modern tools to optimize the life of its inhabitants and city management (Mikucki 2021). The smart city is a much broader term that includes cybernetic, digital activities as well as those based on machine-to-machine communication. The smart city is considered as an idea, a concept, a phenomenon, a process, and a policy (action).
3 Media and ICT in smart city
The technological dimension of smart city is the starting point for the research presented in this publication. The technological approach of smart city is often presented as a set of interconnected elements that provide data on citizens’ activities and the physical state of the city (Mikucki 2021). J. Ramon Gil-Garcia (2012) considers cities using advanced information and communication technologies to combine and integrate information, processes, institutions, and physical infrastructure as smart city, which is intended to have an impact on improving the living conditions of residents and society as an entire. The authors of the article Smart Cities of the Future have recognized the key role of small and large IT companies that provide a range of ready-to-use solutions through software and innovative devices (Batty et al. 2012). Michael Batty and the co-authors see the essence of the smart city concept in the need to coordinate and integrate technologies that have so far been developed separately from each other, but which have clear synergies in their application and must be combined, thus contributing to improving the quality of life in the city. On the other hand, Jennifer Gabrys (2014) stated that, in many of the proposals, smart cities referring to ICT solutions, digital technologies are designed to synchronize urban infrastructures to improve resource efficiency, service distribution, and participation. Technological factors are crucial, above all, through the use of ICT to change the way of living and working in the city. However, simply implementing technology is not enough – tools and software are important, but without real commitment and willingness to cooperate between public institutions, private companies, organizations, schools, and citizens, it will not be possible to implement smart cities effectively (Hollands 2008).
In a smart society, the main focus is on the tools, forms, and organization of the exchange of data, messages, and information, which takes place mainly through the network infrastructure. The communication is supported by innovative and functional devices, whereby unlimited contacts can be established without the need to move around. Technological solutions influence the infrastructure of society through social, telecommunications, data exchange, wireless, integrated, and, above all, multimedia and broadband networks. The convergence of all types of networks leads to the ubiquitous digitization of communication and information processes based on ever-newer technologies. This makes communication more efficient, faster, and multi-channel.
Various media in urban space can be treated both as goals (functions) and as tools (resources) for introducing and implementing smart city strategies. The term ‘media’ – including ‘new’ – raises many definition problems today, with particular reference to the differences between technology and media. Jan van Dijk (2010) defined the new media as integrated and interactive media of the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries based on binary code. Alternatively, they are called digital, interactive, or multimedia. The understanding of new media is relative because it changes with time and what distinguishes them from the traditional word and image is that they are closely linked to technology, that they are created through the interaction between man and machine (Hopfinger 2002).
One of the first steps to introduce new media into the urban space is the use of information and communication technology tools. ICT provides solutions that have a positive impact on the social, economic, and environmental spheres. Thus, information and communication technologies become not only important for modern society but are also an essential part of it (Dobrota et al. 2012). The implementation of ICT solutions is necessary for the proper functioning of particular areas of the city’s activity, such as e-services, urban transport, and economics. ICT influences the creation of a real-time city using various data sources (Thompson 2016). These can be, for example, mobile applications, social media, open data websites, city platforms, smart data cards (e.g., the Oyster card in London), or smartphones.
3.1 Media infrastructure in smart city
Smart city has their own ‘architecture’, which consists of sensors, counters, and software that makes it possible to communicate between humans and machines and between machines. It is the reason why it is important to build a proper infrastructure, which will be a link between the digital and physical spheres of the city (Mattern 2015). Haidine and others (2016) have noted that infrastructure plays a key role in creating smart city and they distinguished two types of infrastructure – physical (e.g., buildings, roads, etc.) and digital (ICT-based solutions). Similarly, in the case of media infrastructure, it can be seen that modern media can be classified in terms of both the physical and the digital spheres. Some parts of the infrastructure can be visible to the human eye and some parts are ‘under the surface’ – invisible. Following this, there are two types of media infrastructure: hard (hardware) and soft (software) (Bhowmik 2016). Both the hard and soft parts of the infrastructure intermingle and form different combinations.
3.2 Types of communication in smart city
Media in smart cities can also be analyzed by the different types of communication that take place in the contemporary city. ICT has influenced changes in the ways people communicate and has developed machine-to-machine communication. Human-to-machine (H2M) communication occurs when a person performs an activity with the help of a machine or when a machine sends out a message about what a person should do. In machine-to-machine (M2M) communication, by entering data and programs into a computer and using other technological solutions, the machine can function and communicate with other devices without human intervention.
H2M communication is used in the exchange of information (e.g., mobile communication), and can also be used in other areas of life, such as healthcare, banking, and the city (Antunes et al. 2012). In urban areas, by using a computer, tablet, or smartphone, a citizen can participate in the decision-making process for future urban development or manage facilities (smart cars, smart households). In smart cities, new technologies and media lead to personalization and individualization through geolocalisation and sensors. From this point of view, Ray Kurzweil (2015) is expecting new solutions in everyday life with nanotechnology soon – a new technology to send nano-robots to the brain (through capillaries), which will provide full immersion in virtual reality at the level of the nervous system and connect with human cerebral cortex to the cloud.
The number of smart devices in the city is constantly increasing – from smart cars to smart screens to smartwatches. Sensory solutions for the citizen-oriented smart city consist of sending and recognizing information. Companies representing the high-tech segment outdo each other in creating machines whose communication imitates direct contact with people.
Besides, the Internet is the place where media convergence is the most effective. In smart cities, the Internet is the main communication channel that allows for simultaneous synchronous or asynchronous communication: one-to-one, one-to-many, few-to-few, and many-to-many (Jakubowicz 2011). Nowadays the Internet is a combination of content, services, and people because computers, smartphones, and tablets work together. The software and mobile applications available via the Internet perform the functions of search engines, recommendations, purchases, auctions, and interaction with other users. The software is used to create and communicate with media objects and the surrounding environment (Manovich 2013). Media software can create, publish, and share images, video sequences, 3D projects, text, and maps. In this context, tools used in today’s city include web search engines, email boxes, instant messengers, wiki platforms, online games, podcasting, and virtual reality.
Communication in smart city also takes place between machines. A typical M2M system consists of devices enabling communication networks and information technology integration (Höller et al. 2014). According to Min Chen (2013:168), M2M communication is characterized by a heterogeneous network system that is designed to offer different services at any time and any place, while meeting the quality requirements of the differently experienced smart service users.
Machine-to-machine communication in the city is related to the development of the concept of the Internet of Things (IoT), as provided evidence by the organization of separate discussion panels on this issue during conferences devoted to smart cities, e.g., during the regular Smart City Forum meetings in Warsaw. The Internet of Things is a widely used term used to describe things connected via the Internet that exist in the physical environment. In many aspects, it is compared to communication between machines due to the use of sensors and other information and communication technology devices operating over wired and wireless networks. In a city where M2M and IoT solutions are implemented, symbiotic interaction between the real/physical and digital/virtual worlds is created (Höller et al. 2014).
4 Methodology
Research on the role of media in Berlin and Warsaw is based on the case study method. The goal of this paper is to examine the usage of media and information and communication technologies in the two European capitals mentioned above. The research aims at examining strategies and institutions (both private and public) in light of the practical implementation of smart solutions by City Hall authorities. Using the results of the qualitative research carried out, an attempt was made to assess and understand the role of the media in both cities – both from the perspective of strategic objectives, entities responsible for infrastructure and media development, and as examples of good practice. Over the past few years, the case study approach has become popular among urban media researchers, for example, the method has been applied to the analysis of media clusters in European cities and selected urban spaces in Poland (Komorowski 2017). According to Wilbur Schramm (1971), the use of the case study is useful in research that aims to analyze decision-making processes and the circumstances in which a decision was made, how it was implemented, and what effect it had. According to Robert K. Yin (2017), a case study aims to “analyze a phenomenon in detail, taking into account its actual context”. Depending on the defined problem and research questions, the case study leaves the researcher free to choose the cases studied, the research method (e.g., qualitative analysis), and the research material, as well as the way the data is collected and analyzed.
Given the multitude of views and approaches, the author has systematized his understanding of the term smart city. The author has adopted a definition, according to which smart city is a city that uses information and communication technologies and other modern tools to optimize the lives of its inhabitants and to manage the city. Media are understood here as a channel and medium that use information and communication technologies to perform specific functions. The media are considered through the prism of human-machine and machine-machine communication, and also in terms of both physical and digital media infrastructure (Figure 2). The ‘media’ appearing in the title of the article mean mobile devices and applications, virtual reality, online and social media, as well as devices, software, digitization processes, sensors, sensory grids, etc. Considering the problems discussed, the author did not include the activities of the so-called traditional media (press, radio, television).
Towards dimensions for media in smart city analysis. Source: author.
Berlin and Warsaw are implementing actions towards smart city, but it is assumed that they take different paths of development and implementation. There are differences between the two cities in terms of who is responsible for creating and implementing the smart city strategy – in Berlin the public-private organization Berlin Partner for Business and Technology is involved. The document Smart City Strategy Berlin (2015), which outlines the city’s vision for the development of the city, includes key actions to transform the German capital into smart city. The Warsaw strategy is based on the implementation of dispersed smart projects and their implementation by individual units of the Warsaw City Hall (e.g., the City Digitization Office) and is supported by the general development strategy of the Polish capital – #Warszawa2030 ( 2018).
5 Findings
5.1 Cities in change – understanding of smart city
Differences in the perception of smart city have been noticed at the level of municipalities and private companies. In the definitions of smart city developed by different actors, there is rather a focus on the implementation of a specific plan and the use of specific tools for this action. The analysis of the concept has confirmed the legitimacy of treating smart city based on three main dimensions of impact: human, technological, and institutional. The optimal and mutual operation of these three dimensions is a determinant and key to the creation of the smart city. It should therefore be noted that this division is apparent and that the boundary between the dimensions is inaccurate and may be blurred and certain actions may permeate.
According to many respondents, Berlin appears as a diverse, multicultural, and accessible city. Berlin is: “The mix of the city, the mix of residents is unique. And it’s not a rich city, it’s not a poor city, it’s both. It has a very broad spectrum of everything and everyone (BLN 03)” and “a very diverse city compared to other German cities, so this could be a good platform to bring all concepts together (BLN15)”. In Berlin, the concept of smart city is understood differently, although it is worth noting that it is implemented not only in the city area but is extended to the entire Brandenburg region. It follows that the authorities of Berlin and its neighboring areas are working towards the creation of a smart region and not just smart city of Berlin. The emphasis of the Berlin respondents in the understanding of smart city was mainly on residents and technology where smart city plays a role of: “a nervous system that surrounds the world, as well as people and residents (BLN 06)”. It [smart city – the author] is full of sensors, feedback, artificial intelligence, output devices and interactions (BLN 06)”.
Focusing on the human dimension, Berlin is seen as a multicultural city with an international background, which must take action to improve the lives of all residents. As one of the experts said that: the “mix of residents” [in Berlin – by the author] is unique. It is not a rich city, it is not a poor city, it is both. It has a very broad spectrum of everything and everyone (BLN 03)”. Berlin is a diverse city, which makes it a communication platform for many different international, cultural, and other actors. Technological change goes hand in hand with social change, so it is important to educate citizens on the use of technology in the city. Residents need to know what social benefits arise from the use of infrastructure and media in urban spaces. Therefore, it is worth promoting the idea of smart city among citizens using various media, starting from traditional media (e.g., posters in urban space) and ending with online messages e.g., on the authorities’ websites (BLN 05). It is crucial to use modern solutions and technologies to ensure the safety of citizens and quick and simple access to the media. In the opinion of experts, residents should take an active part in creating the city – smart city exists thanks to residents and for them: “Smartness comes to us from residents. Smart city is a process of negotiation and integration (BLN 11)”.
Berlin respondents also linked smart city to the technological dimension. The growth rates of the Berlin ICT sector are higher than average, and the media and creative industries are the business areas of around 37 000 companies, which employ more than 300 000 people and generate an annual turnover of around EUR 30 billion. ICT affects every aspect of city life, so it is impossible to build a city of the future without it: “smart city is full of sensors, communication feedback, artificial intelligence, output devices and interaction (BLN 06)”. Technologies influence directly the high level of digitization, and it is, according to most respondents, the determinant of smart city. “The smart city represents the digital form of all the processes that take place when you live in a city. It starts with smart homes, smart workplaces, and smart cities. I think smart city means a new expression, a new word that inscribes the inhabitant as a participant in all public events and communication activities (BLN 05)”. There is a need to connect: “the digital and physical sphere, so everything we do is to provide the second, digital skin of the city, and thus what smart city is really (BLN 03)”. And what is important “smart city is not only about communication in the basic sense but also about everything that establishes our context (BLN 14)”.
There is a need to connect: “the digital and physical sphere, so everything we do is to provide the second, digital skin of the city, and thus what smart city is really (BLN 03)”.
In the institutional dimension, the cooperation of many entities is supposed to make Berlin a metropolis based on technology, creative industries, and innovation. For this purpose, the German capital has set up a suitable unit, the Berlin Partner, to bring together various partners to stimulate the city’s economy. The cooperation of actors involved in the smart city process is crucial (BLN 14). “An important role in networking is nowadays played by machines and solutions based on artificial intelligence (BLN 14)”. The respondent outlined futuristic scenarios for urban development based on constantly evolving technologies and the use of machines in modern communication. Berlin has a long tradition of partnership: as early as 1994, private companies joined forces with the city authorities and founded Partner für Berlin Gesellschaft für Hauptstadt-Marketing to make Berlin the capital of innovation. An important role is played here by the city’s corporate culture and the communication processes between authorities, companies, organizations, and residents. According to that: “city offices should adopt an organizational culture similar to that of large corporations, as exemplified by the German city of Hamburg (BLN 08)”. Thus, inspiration in the way they work and function within a corporation can influence the ordering and effectiveness of projects aimed at creating smart city.
In Warsaw, the concept of smart city is very popular and ambiguous, but one can see that the common denominator is information and communication technologies. Although “the term smart city is very often misused. Especially in the sector of ICT companies, electronics, IT, telecommunications (WAW 15)”. The study paid the same attention to all three dimensions of smart city: human, technological and institutional.
In the human dimension, the inhabitants are seen as one of the city’s main resources. Technology should be used to serve the residents and help people (e.g., those with disabilities), and the role of smart city “is to use technologies to improve and facilitate life in the city. In the concept of sustainable development – a city for everyone (WAW 02)”. Smart city is supposed to make the inhabitants live optimally, while the means used for this play a secondary role (WAW 03). Therefore, the most important thing is to achieve the goal, and the tools used can be varied but must be effective and efficient. The city must take care to ensure reliable information and proper communication, as well as the safety of its residents. It is also essential to use technology to make life easier for disabled people, for which access to information may be problematic. The city must not exclude any social groups – must be inclusive. Urban communities, despite different cultural codes or dysfunctions, should be treated equally (WAW 12). “Smart city consists of a number of communication subsystems that form a whole and these subsystems are connected through various channels and are designed to serve the residents. Technology is intended to keep people safe and to have a positive impact on culture and society. In promoting the smart city concept, it should be emphasized that it is resident-centered, while technology is one of many tools affecting the quality of life in the city (WAW 04)”. An example of using information and communication technologies to improve the quality of functioning in the city is the Virtual Warsaw mobile application. The aim is to create a micro-navigation system in Warsaw with the use of a mobile application and micro-transmitters in the urban fabric.
The technological area in Warsaw is understood as the integration of information systems that will improve the quality and speed of information transfer. “Smart city is about exploiting the potential inherent in modern solutions (WAW 08)” and technology and new media influence whether a city is smart (WAW 01). Technology is a determining factor in the smart city – “a city that uses technology to improve, make life easier. In the concept of sustainable development – a city for all (WAW02)”. ICT is to automate and speed up communication processes in Warsaw. Technology plays a dual role in smart city: on the one hand, it is a source for creating devices and software; on the other hand, technological tools make people’s lives easier, thus saving various resources e.g., time (WAW 01). The presence of developed technology affects the quality of media infrastructure which should be adapted to modern digital technologies and the potential of the inhabitants (WAW 10). In the Polish capital, the technological area is understood as the integration of IT systems that will affect the quality and speed of information transfer. Information and communication technologies are designed to automate and accelerate communication processes (WAW 06). Warsaw “is the city that uses technology to improve, to make city life easier. In the concept of sustainability – a city for all (WAW02)”.
Warsaw municipal authorities, private companies, residents, and environmental and social organizations participate in the creation of smart city because this concept is about communicating, coordinating needs, coordinating responses to those needs, is about working together for development (WAW 10)”. Within the institutional dimension, it is important to create an environment that is optimal for many: residents, companies, organizations, or authorities. The involvement of various actors will contribute to the development of solutions that will improve and facilitate the functioning of the city, among other things, in terms of working conditions, urban transport, or digital communication (WAW 09). “The target groups for technology in the city are residents, investors, and tourists (WAW02)”. Another indicator of the institutional dimension is the number of investments and the presence of investors – domestic and foreign (WAW 04). Technology is the basis for building smart city, while the creative industry is the future of city development. The task of technological entities is to improve the activities carried out by ecological, social, or cultural organizations (WAW 11).
5.2 City strategies in change
To fully understand the role of the media in smart city Berlin and smart city Warsaw, it is crucial to examine the strategic approach to this idea. Berlin and Warsaw have different approaches to having an official smart city strategy: a formal document in Berlin, no strategy dedicated solely to smart city Warsaw, as well as an indication of the role of the media. On the other hand, in both Berlin and Warsaw, smart city operations are decentralized. Cooperation between public institutions and private companies is treated as an opportunity for the city’s development: “public-private partnership is a welcome matter because the administration has little chance to match the business (WAW 09)”.
The study notes that smart projects in Berlin are dispersed (BLN 03). Nevertheless, given the strategic objectives and individual actions, the respondents pointed to the advantage of the human factor. Human action dominates in Berlin, which has its impact on the official strategy of the city and because of that: “Berlin does not need a purely technological approach. People in Berlin are to be in the center The main strategy is and must be to increase the standard of living of citizens in Berlin (BLN 04)”. The role of smaller urban communities in the process of creating smart city is also important. For example, The Hybrid Space Lab is a grassroots activity where architects, urban planners, designers, media experts, and artists meet to initiate and develop mixed analog and digital projects in the German capital. Their main aim is to adapt the inhabitants to the changing reality and to stimulate cultural innovation. But as another respondent notes “now we have tech offerings, but I’m not sure people live in that environment. How can we show them to want to live in the world of technology? This is a question to which I don’t see an answer (BLN 02)”. So “one of the main goals should be to find a way to show the population the benefits of smart processes. Because the smart city is an abstraction that people are not familiar with (BLN 07).
The study showed that cooperation between the public and private sectors in Berlin is the key to success in the development of the smart city because “the public sector contributes content and the private sector capital and competence (BLN 14)”. In Berlin, as part of the cooperation of municipal authorities and private companies, the revitalization of the gasometer space, which is out of use, is being revised to become a technological and creative area for residents and entrepreneurs – Euref Campus. As one of the respondents emphasized, “the creation of smart city Berlin is not the idea of creating a universal network communication platform, but the idea is to collect a lot of different players (BLN 14)”.
Berlin is characterized by a liberal approach to strategy implementation. Technology companies and organizations initiate their independent projects, while the role of the authorities is mainly to coordinate ongoing actions. “The startup ecosystem is alive, and people have a very liberal atmosphere in Berlin […]” and because of that inhabitants can realize themselves “in a different way and no one stops being creative. There is a very liberal and young, dynamic atmosphere here [in Berlin – by the author] (BLN 04)”. Berlin is an ecosystem conducive to the development of innovation, new media, and technologies, as evidenced by the presence of many research and start-up entities (BLN 07). The study revealed the need for change and support for innovation in Berlin: “It is not about buying new infrastructure for the city at the best price, but to integrate it with innovation (BLN 04)”.
The study noted the need for a suitable communication infrastructure in Berlin. In particular, it is necessary to develop mobile and wireless infrastructure (BLN 02). A digital form of infrastructure would, among other things, improve the economy of the residents and the entire city. The media infrastructure in Berlin is not fully developed, and most of the efforts to build it are made by private technology companies. It is important to start by improving the hard infrastructure in the city because it is still inefficient, and the starting point should be actions for building the proper “physical structure of the network (BLN 02)”. Concerning media in the city, attention was also paid to investing in urban data. “Data is the most important resource of the new century (BLN 02)”, which not only drives the economy but also improves the quality of life in the city.
Referring to the official strategy document, attention was drawn to the discrepancy between the strategy and the facts, arguing that the strategy document is created mainly for marketing and image purposes (BLN 13). The study emphasized that Berlin’s smart city strategy document is not fully objective, and some elements of politicization can be seen in it: “part of smart city in Berlin is driven by the interests of the authorities (BLN 10)”. In terms of strategy and technology “there is a strong emphasis on technology in the strategy because it can save money, it can save human resources or processes that can be organized better and faster with the help of technology. But we do not want to focus solely on technology (BLN 04)”. In addition, it has been noted that the difficulties in implementing the smart city concept are due to the three-tier administration (BLN 04). Berlin’s federal administration leads to the fact that each district has its policy, so communication between the district authorities must be strengthened and streamlined. This will make it possible to exchange knowledge, experience, and projects (BLN 08).
According to experts in Warsaw, the success of smart city does not depend on the creation of official strategic documents: “there is no strategy, i.e., there is no strategic document. (…) I ask the question of whether we need a strategy because it cannot – I think – bring smart city concept to the subject of strategy. For me, the strategy is a development strategy and smart city is a concept of development (WAW 10)”. The lack of a common strategy is an advantage, as it leads to competition and ingenuity (WAW 10). However, workplaces were created for smart city specialists and a spot dedicated to the idea itself was prepared and promoted (WAW 02). The authorities of Warsaw are aware that other Polish cities, such as Wrocław or Rzeszów, have developed official smart city strategies, but despite that, they resigned from limiting their actions to fulfilling the promises included in the document (WAW 02). One Warsaw expert also noted that the smart city is a concept that is difficult to understand for part of the population, especially for those whose economic status is not the best: “I have the impression that in Poland we have a problem understanding deeper concepts, and the smart city is a deeper concept (WAW10)”.
In Warsaw, municipal authorities initiate and strongly engage in the processes of digitization and media development in the city, which is proven by the creation of the Warszawa 19115 platform:” this [Warszawa 19115 – by the author] is not just an application, but the entire system related to city management. It has two layers – one is a resident layer […]. The second aspect is how the city works, where there are faults in the city (WAW 11)”. The main initiatives are investments in the development of infrastructure and the digital layer, which thus increase the quality of the services provided, including main e-services. Discussing the specificity of Warsaw, one of the respondents noted that it is easier to create smart city from scratch by building a new city or in a small town than in a large metropolis (WAW 05). Above all, building resources cannot be increased due to the limited urban area, which means that activities must be very well thought-out and comprehensive.
The involvement of many city actors is necessary to create smart city (WAW 08). Expert statements confirm the thesis that public-private partnerships are beneficial for both the city and the solution provider (WAW 01). Many independent entities in Warsaw recognize the importance of the smart city idea, but the challenge which should be taken up by the municipal authorities is to create a cooperation and communication network between them. The study also stressed the importance of work culture and proper project management in smart operations. (WAW 14). The study recognizes the advantages of cooperation between public and private actors. Creative ideas and solutions for the smart city are provided by the private sector, which is better developed than the public sector: “I believe you have to look for solutions where the competencies are. And they are not in the public sector, they are in the private sector (WAW06)”.
In any urban strategy, all actions should be citizen-centered, and in Warsaw “the main goal should be to improve the quality of life because the city is about people. When there are no people, there is no city (WAW 11)”. A city is smart when people are well-informed and have an influence on management. The end-user of all solutions is the citizen (WAW 03), but “the citizens are big a source of the data which give information about the city, people and general functioning of the whole city area (WAW 11)”. The study highlighted the positive involvement of Warsaw residents in urban processes where “the issue of social participation, sustainable development is properly addressed (WAW 09)”.
The study showed the need to build an integrated communication platform in Warsaw (WAW 08), which would be filled with urban data – this is particularly the aim of the municipal authorities. One of the respondents appreciated the actions of municipal authorities to make data available (WAW 09). Urban open data is given as one of the best examples of smart action in Warsaw. Another expert noted that city authorities share data with private entities to boost the economy and improve services for residents (WAW 11). Open data activities are crucial in Warsaw and “not just open data, but also open innovation and open corporations. Not only city data should be open, but everything should be characterized by openness (WAW 08)”.
The importance of hard and soft infrastructure solutions was recognized. One of the main products offered is IoT, which combines multiple communication solutions (WAW 03). A smartphone, on the other hand, is an extension of the human being and the first device with which to connect directly with a resident who “should be informed of certain events, preferably by phone (WAW 09)”. At the same time, the study showed that the media infrastructure in Warsaw is still in the development stage – it is not integrated.
Shortcomings in the planning of smart city activities in Warsaw were pointed out. The development of Warsaw is carried out without a plan, in a disorderly way: “the main goal of smart city is sustainable development. We have [in Warsaw – by the author] a chaotic development (WAW 06)”. According to one expert, smart city projects in the city are noticeably scattered, but there is no single document summarizing all activities (WAW 05). In Poland’s capital city, there is still too little action taken by city authorities and technology companies to develop smart solutions. (WAW 10). Moreover, according to one of the Warsaw interviewees, joint actions between the city authorities and technology companies are badly perceived by the public because of the “hidden” economic interest of private companies: “We are not ready. We see each other as having impure interests (WAW 03)”.
5.3 Media in the city in change
Media is nowadays an ambiguous term. During the in-depth interviews, various definitions and ways of understanding contemporary media appeared. The media are understood as “different kinds of media communication, media infrastructure and information (BLN 07)”, and “a carrier of information in every direction and can build information platforms (WAW04)”, and “a kind of visible skin that combines everything around us. The media will play a more important role in the future because of the different ways of information, communication. They will be connected more and more. They will be the most powerful tool in the smart city (BLN 08)”.
The study noted an analogy between media space and city space: “the city is a communication space, and the media are a place of communication (BLN 08)”. Most of the communication processes currently taking place in the city are based on the media (BLN 14). New media in particular are an elementary part of smart cities, where communication takes place on many levels and through various channels (WAW 02). “Media are the core of smart city” and “everything is media. It’s an extension of your sensors. And it could be your phone vibrating because you’re turning left. It’s an interaction. It connects you with the world and information about the world. And it’s everywhere (BLN 06)” as one of the respondents underlined.
Smart city is based on digital communication and processes, which is why it is so important to implement an appropriate media infrastructure that improves the city. For a given urban communication solution to work, it is necessary to create an infrastructure consisting of both hard and soft elements (WAW 03). The infrastructure has to be useful and user-friendly for its beneficiaries (BLN 13) and only a proper combination of hard and soft infrastructure will have positive effects on the city (BLN 06). “Sensory solutions and the idea of the Internet of Things are of key importance for the hard infrastructure (BLN 08)” and they play a crucial role in collecting urban data. As one of the respondents said, “there is one infrastructure, some sensors or other devices or elements of technical infrastructure that collect data, transmit this data somewhere to the cloud, and this cloud makes use of them (WAW 06)”. Sensors are an alternative to traditional media (WAW 02), and, above all, communication solutions based on beacons are useful for the city. Investing in sensory solutions alone is not enough, so the right software is needed to manage city services. Hard infrastructure is dependent on soft infrastructure, and vice versa, so when implementing it, problems are encountered, especially in upgrading old infrastructure (BLN 15).
Media and technologies in the city are implemented due to the data policies of entities that usually implement the smart city strategy independently. What is important, “media idea changes with technological development, so when we talk about media, we also talk about information and communication technologies (BLN 15)”. The task of city authorities is to guarantee access to basic infrastructure, which is the basis for creating other solutions by private entities. Thus, “a city should build its infrastructure, for its purposes, but also make it available to others (WAW 11)”. The integration of multiple channels and data collection sources is an important task for municipalities. And “the communication channel is all that allows any communication between different terminals, whether human-machine or machine-machine. Software and hardware define what is this channel (WAW 09). In the efforts to create the media infrastructure, a major factor is already existing and still functioning infrastructure in the German capital, and relatively new and developing infrastructure in the Polish capital.
M2M and H2M commutations are essential for smart city and will continue to be more involved (BLN 03). Modern infrastructure brings benefits in terms of, for example, savings or safety in the city. Sensors play a key role in M2M communication and especially on the Internet of Things (WAW 04). H2M and M2M-based communication solutions foster the production of new media, and this may result in a new type of media that will eventually absorb the old media. (BLN 15). In human-to-machine and machine-to-machine communication, it is important to keep a balance so that machines would not be superior to the human factor: “Machinery and technology are meant to serve man, not the other way around (WAW 14)”.
The main problems related to the implementation of H2M and M2M can be identified. Above all, H2M and M2M communication are not yet well developed in Berlin due to technical deficiencies, as well as legal regulations which limit human-machine activities. The study in Warsaw recognized the universality of H2M and the usefulness of M2M, but the second communication pattern still has few applications in the city. In both Berlin and Warsaw, another difficulty is the lack of legal regulations concerning M2M solutions and problems with standardization resulting from the multitude of communication protocols.
Berlin and Warsaw have not yet fully appreciated the usefulness of solutions based on communication between machines, but there is increasing use of these solutions in both cities. As one of the respondents said, “everyone walks with smartphones, so human interaction with the machine is everywhere. Machine-machine interaction is not so obvious, but it will be stronger and more important in the future (BLN 06)”. It should also be noted that the purpose of M2M communications is to automatically combine data, but not all data should be integrated (WAW 08).
More hard tools, such as city screens and smartphones, should be implemented and used in the capital of Germany. In contrast, concerning soft infrastructure, there is still a need for new mobile applications that will provide communication with municipal authorities, security for residents, and data that will be treated as a source of information about the city. In Berlin, the study found that smartphones are key for H2M communication in the city, while M2M communication highlights the growing role of the Internet of Things.
In Warsaw, it was noted that media in the city should be contextual and enable an analysis of user behavior. Soft infrastructure becoming increasingly dominant and self-sufficient. There is still the need to build the hard and soft infrastructure where “the communication channel is all that allows any communication between different terminals, whether human-machine or machine-machine. Software and hardware define what is this channel (WAW 06)”.
“Our idea of media is changing with technological developments, so when we talk about media, we are also talking about information and communication technologies (BLN 15)”. The Berlin respondent emphasized the huge transformative role of the media which “changes your connection to the world, changing the way you see the world, and you react differently because you have different information about the world. So, the media defines everything (BLN 11)”.
It is also important to remember that: “media in the city are moving towards predictive and personalized messages based on data analysis. The media will pull data from different sources, depending on what my profile is, and whether we are approaching something, that is dangerous (WAW08)”.
6 Future
Undoubtedly, one direction for further research in the smart city area is to focus on the role of city citizens. Particularly important are their level of involvement, their willingness to participate in the smart city process, and the use of media in the city. Technologies implemented in a city make no sense if people do not use them, so the role of citizens as media users, what kind of information they expect and how the interaction between urban actors involved in smart city processes can take place should be investigated. At this point, media education of citizens is an interesting research direction. It is worth investigating what social elements may inhibit or accelerate cooperation and opening up to citizens. Focusing on people and the city, the question of gentrification and urban regeneration is also key and can be used for social or economic purposes.
The future of the smart city can be looked at from the side of organizational culture in administrative bodies and policy-making. Current administrative structures tend to be flattened, resulting in longer decision-making processes. The smart city is influencing new patterns of organizational culture, as evidenced by the interest in creative environments. Private organizations are quicker to recognize the potential of new forms of work culture, so it is worth examining what factors influence the private sector sees certain relationships and benefits that the public sector does not. The future of media in the smart city will be even more important, mainly due to the dynamic use of technology in everyday life, which is causing media to evolve and more forms of media to emerge. ICTs are influencing the development of new communication constructs, used in multiple ways. New forms of media are increasingly being used in urban spaces, such as artificial intelligence or VR. It can therefore be expected that a new form of media will emerge soon to transform the city.
The smart city concept is strongly linked to the area of collecting as much data as possible, and the media are critical in their acquisition. Thus, the role of the media is increasingly moving towards collecting, processing, and presentation of data obtained from multiple devices and multiple channels. Therefore, solutions based on H2M and M2M communication are key, as they enable the collection of data directly from the user and their environment.
When thinking about the development of media in the future, it is important to note, that they are already being combined with artificial intelligence, so it seems natural to use them in robotics and the automation of human processes. Media are becoming more and more contextual, adapting to the user thanks to algorithms, so in the long term, it can be expected that robots will replace humans in performing many communication activities, as they will be able to act automatically and even predictively based on data analysis. Such solutions are mainly needed in cities with an increasing influx of people, so communication processes must take place quickly and efficiently. In Berlin, tests are already being carried out on the use of autonomous vehicles, and there are plans to implement them permanently in urban spaces in the future. However, the main obstacles are the fears of the inhabitants – related, for example, to surveillance or changes in the labor market – and the law, which works very slowly and does not keep up with reality.
7 Conclusions
Considering the three main dimensions of smart city impact, in both cases – Berlin and Warsaw – to a greater or lesser extent all dimensions are visible, but one can say that in Berlin the human dimension dominates, while in Warsaw the technological one. In both cities, the impact of the media infrastructure is highlighted, with hard and soft parts. In Berlin, the infrastructure needs to be updated due to current technological developments. In Warsaw, the infrastructure needs further development because it is being expanded in some parts and is not yet integrated. In both Berlin and Warsaw, there are two types of communication on which smart city solutions are based: human-machine communication and machine-to-machine communication. As a result of the analysis of sources in the theoretical and practical dimension as well as the qualitative research allow consider the hypothesis to be correct: media in smart city Berlin and smart city Warsaw are not the result of a specifically defined strategy. The strategy is perceived as insufficient and is understood differently depending on the respondent profile.
It can be concluded that the success of smart city implementation does not depend on the creation of official strategic documents. The efforts to produce the smart city are characterized by a dispersion of projects that are undertaken by many actors, not only public but also private. Media and technology in the city are implemented through the policies of stakeholders, who are usually pursuing the smart city strategy themselves. As the study shows, many actors must cooperate and engage in urban projects. Berlin has a liberal approach to strategy implementation, which means that technology companies and organizations are more active in the smart city area, initiating their independent projects, while the role of the authorities in this process is reduced to only coordinating the ongoing actions. In Warsaw, the city authorities initiate and are strongly involved in digitization processes and media development in the city, as evidenced, for example, by the creation of the Warszawa 19115 platform. The activities of organizations and private companies are much weaker and very dispersed in the actions undertaken. Although Warsaw does not have an official smart city strategy document, smart initiatives are promoted and implemented through the activities of individual city departments. This is also a strategic approach that allows a great deal of flexibility in the action and testing of smart solutions without following a long-term official document. In times of a dynamically changing technological environment and thus the development of ever newer solutions (e.g., artificial intelligence), the Warsaw approach seems to be more agile in adapting the implementation of smart city solutions. In both Berlin and Warsaw, some urban planners and experts have criticized the extreme technological approach, emphasizing the human dimension of cities. Especially in Berlin, most respondents indicated that inclusivity or cultural diversity was more important than a strictly technocratic approach to smart city development. Measures to promote e.g., cycling or resource sharing are highly promoted in Berlin.
In the two cities analyzed, municipal governments are taking various measures to improve the media infrastructure in the city. In Berlin, these measures are rather slow because the old infrastructure is still functioning, and the inhabitants have gotten used to the way of using existing communication solutions in the city. In Warsaw, on the other hand, the process of creating infrastructure is faster and more effective, because it is easier to implement new technological solutions and elements than to update the old ones. A similar action taken by Berlin and Warsaw is the stages of development of media infrastructure, which shows that hard infrastructure should be developed first, and then soft infrastructure. Both Berlin and Warsaw are representative of the implementation of the smart city concept in Europe, especially in the area of Central and Eastern Europe, which is united by a great deal of history (cities affected by the communist system), cultural codes, and membership of the European Union. In Warsaw, the emphasis is on activities in the technological dimension, which is related to the implantation of the latest technologies and media, in an area where, in fact, until about 20 years ago, the media infrastructure was underdeveloped and activities for its development were not carried out and noticed. Berlin has quite a long tradition of implementing technology into the urban fabric, but it is already an infrastructure that is often inadequate for today’s technological possibilities, so efforts to update/renovate it are slow. On the other hand, residents are already friends with the existing infrastructure, and it seems that it is for them, as well as for city decision-makers, it is more important to act on the human dimension and promote pro-human solutions, not necessarily involving technology. Thus, one city and the other represent different paths to smart city implementation, but these are adapted to their economic and social state as well as their historical background. Other cities with similar experiences and stages of development can benefit from the strategic approaches of the cities analyzed.
About the author
Jacek Mikucki is assistant professor at University of Warsaw (Poland), PhD. He has studied audiovisual culture, urban communications and new forms of media, including startups and SMEs in Germany and Poland. Through his PhD dissertation, he contributed to the theory of high technologies and media infrastructure in a smart city. He has a background in qualitative studies – data collection and coding of findings from semi-structured interviews. He teaches at the University of Warsaw, Poland. He has been involved in several projects on media and communication in smart cities. His research interests new forms of media, local communication, electronic media and audiovisual arts.
Appendix: In-depth interview questionnaire used in Berlin and Warsaw
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Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Themed Section Editorial Essay
- Digital cities theme section editorial essay: approach digital cities from the communication perspective
- Summer Issue Editorial Essay
- Summer 2023 editorial essay: digital cities, ChatGPT use in Africa, Nigerian online news coverage of the Russian–Ukraine war and use of emotional mobilization and disinformation in Hong Kong anti-extradition protests
- Themed Section: Digital Cities and Re-Mediation of Global Civilization
- Beyond the smart city: a communications-led agenda for twentyfirst century cities
- Managing future cities: media and information and communication technologies in the context of change
- Data plantation: Northern Virginia and the territorialization of digital civilization in “the Internet Capital of the World”
- Original Articles
- CHATGPT and the Global South: how are journalists in sub-Saharan Africa engaging with generative AI?
- Sahara Reporters and Premium Times online coverage of the Russia–Ukraine war
- Featured Translated Research Outside the Anglosphere
- Emotional community and concerted action: on the emotional mobilization mechanism of disinformation in the Anti-extradition Law amendment movement in Hong Kong
