Healthy lifestyle perceptions and practices among college students at Yanbu University College for Women in Saudi Arabia

Ansam Bizzari; Farhat Nasar

doi:10.1515/ohe-2023-0036

Article Open Access

Healthy lifestyle perceptions and practices among college students at Yanbu University College for Women in Saudi Arabia

Ansam Bizzari and Farhat Nasar

Published/Copyright: July 11, 2024

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From the journal Open Health Volume 5 Issue 1

Abstract

Background and aim

This study aimed to assess the healthy lifestyle perceptions and practices among female students enrolled in Yanbu University College for Women.

Methods

This questionnaire-based, cross-sectional descriptive study targeted the entire student body in the academic year 2022–2023 and included a convenience sample of 604 students.

Results

The majority of respondents were healthy, with a mean of 19.5 years of age. Most students thought a healthy diet, physical activity, adequate sleep, and stress management were good for their health (96%), and most stated that their habits needed improvement (64%). Behavior results showed that dietary intake was inadequate, with less than 25% of participants consuming recommended amounts of grains, vegetables, fruits, meats, dairy products, and water. Students with iron deficiency anemia were more likely to follow a vegan diet and consume less of all food groups than healthy participants. Physical activity results showed that 52% of study participants engaged in daily moderate activity, 30% were inactive, and 9% were highly active. Only 25% of participants reported sleeping the recommended daily 7–9 h. The majority of respondents believed managing stress was critical for their health (95%) and stated several methods of dealing with stress, but about 34% did nothing about it.

Conclusion

The study found a gap between knowledge and practice, with physical activity practices showing higher engagement than the other aspects. This gap can be addressed through comprehensive programs targeting behaviors and support practices. Intervention educational programs may significantly improve students’ healthy lifestyle behavior and health outcomes.

Keywords: healthy lifestyle; health promotion; Saudi Arabia; university students

Abbreviations

YUCW: Yanbu University College for Women
CDC: Center for Disease Control and Prevention
WHO: World Health Organization
BMI: Body mass index
SFDA: Saudi Food and Drug Authority
SHA: Saudi Health Authority
NSF: National Sleep Foundation

1 Introduction

Healthy lifestyle choices significantly improve health, delay disease onset, and increase productivity. They contribute to weight management and reduce the risk of developing chronic conditions like diabetes and cardiovascular diseases [1]. The World Health Organization defines a healthy lifestyle as “a way of living that promotes physical, mental, and social well-being” [2]. Primary aspects of a healthy lifestyle include a balanced diet, regular physical activity, regular sleep patterns, and stress management [1,2].

In early adulthood, lifestyle habits significantly influence health outcomes. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle in adulthood is associated with a longer lifespan, improved cognitive function and mood, and reduced stress-related conditions [3,4,5,6]. Unhealthy habits in adolescence increase the risks of developing non-communicable diseases early in life [7,8]. Young adults, particularly when transitioning into college, face difficulties in living independently, balancing academic requirements, managing finances, and caring for their health [9,10]. High-stress levels, lack of knowledge, skills, or motivation, and challenges in managing challenges can significantly impact their physical and mental health and academic performance [11,12,13,14]. Understanding young adults’ attitudes and practices toward a healthy lifestyle can help recognize their needs and establish targeted health and well-being initiatives.

Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 Quality of Life agenda focuses on promoting a healthy lifestyle. The Saudi Quality of Life Program, launched in 2018, aims to improve the lifestyle of individuals and families in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia [15]. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a leading global country in non-communicable diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. These diseases contribute to approximately 73% of total mortality in the country [16]. Research in Saudi Arabia shows that a small portion of the population adheres to diet and physical activity guidelines, which explains the 37% overweight and 41% obesity prevalence among adults [17,18,19]. A recent study found that 29% of Saudi women lack nutrition awareness and 50% use their knowledge for dietary decisions [20]. Intervention programs that focus on improving lifestyle knowledge and practices can play a significant role in enhancing health outcomes. Understanding a population’s perceptions and practices of a healthy lifestyle is the first step toward introducing tailored health promotion programs.

This descriptive study aimed to assess the lifestyle aspects of college students at Yanbu University College for Women (YUCW). YUCW serves female students exclusively. The assessment focused on diet, physical activity, rest, sleep, and stress management. To our knowledge, this study is the first to assess YUCW students’ lifestyles. The findings help recognize students’ lifestyle attitudes and behaviors and serve as a foundational guide for designing interventions to improve students’ health and well-being.

2 Methods

This descriptive cross-sectional and questionnaire-based study aimed to assess the perceptions and practices of a healthy lifestyle among female students enrolled in the YUCW. A total of 1,892 students are enrolled in the YUCW. The sample size was calculated using the Raosoft sample size calculator [21]. We presumed a 95% confidence level, a 5% margin of error, and a response distribution of 50%, yielding a minimum sample size of 320. To enhance the representativeness and reliability of our findings, we intentionally exceeded the minimum sample size requirement. Therefore, a random sample of 800 students received the questionnaire to increase the likelihood of a robust response rate and to account for potential incomplete or inconsistent responses. We received 696 responses, but excluded some responses for incomcpleteness. The final dataset for comprehensive data analysis consisted of 604 complete responses.

The study was conducted in two primary phases: the first phase was for instrument development and validation and the second phase was for data collection and questionnaire administration.

2.1 Phase I: study instrument validation

We used a modified healthy lifestyle digital questionnaire created using Google Forms. The first draft of the questionnaire was developed after thoroughly examining the available literature [22,23,24,25,26]. A pilot test with 58 student volunteers evaluated the questionnaire’s logistics, administration time, usability, and clarity. The questionnaire was modified by removing items and clarifying others, shortening questions, and using Arabic only. Reliability testing was conducted, with a 0.86 test–retest reliability coefficient.

The modified questionnaire included 6 sections and 31 questions.

Section 1: Informed consent. This section introduced the study’s background and purpose and invited the students to participate.
Section 2: Student demographics, age, marital status, health conditions, healthy lifestyle habits, and weight and height were used to calculate BMI and determine weight status as categorized by CDC [1].

Underweight (<18.5)
Normal weight (18.5–24.99)
Overweight (25–29.99)
Obese (≥30).

Section 3: Dietary habits’ questions.
Section 4: Physical activity questions
Section 5: Sleeping habits questions.
Section 6: Stress-related questions.

Informed consent: Informed consent has been obtained from all individuals included in this study.

2.2 Phase II: data collection

The second phase consisted of questionnaire administration to the study cohort from March 26 to April 24, 2023. We targeted the entire enrolled student body of approximately eighteen hundred students, in the academic year 2022–2023. Students from all YUCW study levels were invited to participate with a questionnaire hyperlink through email and Blackboard. Participation was entirely voluntary, and participants could choose to participate, not participate, withdraw, or suspend their responses without penalty or consequence. There were no financial or other incentives for participation. The student was given two options to participate: agree or disagree. If “agree” was selected, the form proceeded to the following sections. If “disagree” was selected, a “thank you” note appeared, and the questionnaire stopped. No names or ID numbers were collected to ensure privacy.

Students who consented to participate received a one-time access to the questionnaire.

The questionnaire was administered in classrooms. A nutritionist or a research assistant was present during administration to clarify technical terms and answer students’ questions. The average time for completing the survey was 18 min. Data collection was disabled after April 24, 2023, and stored in a password-secured electronic database for analysis.

2.3 Data analysis

The collected responses were reviewed for completeness and consistency. A total of 696 responses were received. Only complete responses were systematically included in the dataset intended for the final analysis. We excluded 92 incomplete responses and used the 604 complete responses for comprehensive data analysis. The responses were entered into Microsoft Excel sheets and underwent systematic coding in preparation for data analysis. The results were presented comprehensively, using percentages, frequencies, and tabular and graphical representations. Using the chi-square test, a cross-tabulation approach was employed to gauge the influence of diet habits, physical activity, sleeping patterns, and stress levels on health conditions. This analysis incorporated two-tailed p-value tests with a predefined significance level of 0.05.

3 Results

The data analysis results are described below.

3.1 Demographics and health status

The results showed that 83% of respondents were 17–20 years old, with a mean of 19.5 years of age. There was only one student aged 17 years old. Approximately, 97% of the respondents were single, and 65% were healthy. Health conditions results showed that about 18% of participants had iron deficiency anemia, and 17% had asthma, diabetes, or other health conditions. Health conditions were self-reported, and no medical tests were conducted for diagnosis. Most students had normal weight (≈53%), about 23% were underweight, about 15% were overweight, and about 10% were obese. Approximately 64% of students thought that their “lifestyle habits need improvement,” 24% believed their habits were good, and about 13% thought they were bad. Table 1 displays the respondents’ demographics and perception of healthy lifestyle habits results.

Table 1

Respondents’ demographics and their perception of healthy lifestyle habits (n = 604)

Demographic variables		Frequency	Percentages
Age in years	17–20	501	83.00
	21–24	97	16.00
	25–28	6	1.00
Health conditions	Healthy	391	65.00
	Iron deficiency anemia	111	18.00
	Asthma	11	2.00
	Diabetes	6	1.00
	Other	85	14.00
BMI	Underweight	136	22.52
	Normal weight	318	52.65
	Overweight	92	15.23
	Obesity	58	9.59
Marital status	Single	586	97.02
	Married with no children	7	1.16
	Married with children	7	1.16
	Other	4	0.66
Healthy lifestyle habits perception	Good	143	23.68
	Needs improvement	384	63.58
	Bad	77	12.75

3.2 Diet and eating habits

We found that 92% of participants believed a well-balanced diet was beneficial for their health. However, only 15% of participants believed their diets were well-balanced, 42% believed their diets were bad, and 43% were uncertain. About 32% of participants consumed breakfast daily, while 59% occasionally or never had breakfast. The participants’ daily consumption of the recommended amounts from the food groups was as follows: 10% of participants consumed the recommended amounts of vegetables, 23% fruits, 6% grains, 20% dairy products, and 34% meat and poultry. About 60% of participants said they ate fast food one to five times weekly. The recommended amounts are according to guidelines by the Saudi Food and Drug Authority, CDC, and WHO guidelines [1,2,27].

The results also showed that 18% of respondents had iron deficiency anemia, with most following a vegan diet, eating less than recommended amounts of all food groups, and consuming fast food more frequently than the healthy students. These findings are detailed in Table 2.

Table 2

Respondents’ diet and eating habits (n = 604)

Diet questions	Frequency	Percentage
Q1. Do you think that eating a healthy and well-balanced diet is good for your health?
Yes	557	92.22
Maybe	40	6.62
No	7	1.16
	604	100.00
Q2. Do you consider your diet to be healthy and well balanced?
Yes	92	15.23
Maybe	260	43.05
No	252	41.72
	604	100.00
Q3. Do you follow a specific eating plan?
I follow a regular diet and do not restrict food items.	129	21.36
I follow a vegan/vegetarian diet	429	71.03
I follow keto/low carb diet	27	4.47
Others	19	3.15
Total	604	100.00
Q4. How often do you have breakfast in the morning?
Everyday	192	31.79
Sometimes	354	58.61
Never	58	9.60
	604	100.00
Q5. How often do you consume vegetables daily? (servings/day)
≥5 ser/day	26	4.30
3–4 ser/day	66	10.93
1–2 ser/day	180	29.80
Occasionally	312	51.66
Never	20	3.31
	604	100.00
Q6. How often do you consume fruits daily? (servings/day)
≥3 ser/day	39	6.46
1–2 ser/day	138	22.85
Occasionally	403	66.72
Never	24	3.97
	604	100.00
Q7. How often do you consume bread, cereal, rice, or pasta daily? (servings/day)
≥12 ser/day	23	3.81
6–11 ser/day	37	6.13
3–5 ser/day	155	25.66
1–2 ser/day	283	46.85
Occasionally	104	17.22
Never	2	0.33
	604	100.00
Q8. How often do you consume milk, yogurt, or cheese daily? (servings/day)
2–3 ser/day	117	19.37
1–2 ser/day	238	39.40
Occasionally	198	32.78
Never	20	3.31
	604	100.00
Q9. How often do you consume meat, poultry, fish, dried beans, eggs, or nuts daily? (servings/day)
≥ 4 ser/day	33	5.46
2–3 ser/day	142	23.51
1–2 ser/day	282	46.69
Occasionally	135	22.35
Never	12	1.99
	604	100.00
Q11. How often do you consume fast food per week?
Everyday	22	3.64
3–5 times a week	75	12.42
1–2 times a week	233	38.58
Once every 2 weeks	120	19.87
Once a month	54	8.94
Occasionally/sometimes	98	16.23
Never	2	0.33
	604	100

3.3 Physical activity

Most respondents (96%) believed that exercise and physical activity were beneficial for their health, with only 4% disagreeing. However, only 23% followed an exercise plan and 48% wanted to start one. About 30% of respondents described their physical activity levels as inactive, 52% as moderately active, and 9% as highly active. The results of the respondents’ exercise and physical activity are illustrated in Table 3.

Table 3

Respondents’ exercise and physical activity habits (n = 604)

Exercise and physical activity	Frequency	Percentage
Q1. Do you think exercise is important for your health?
Yes	581	96.19
No	21	3.48
Maybe	2	0.33
	604	100.00
Q2. Do you follow a specific exercise plan?
Yes	136	22.52
No	169	27.98
I would like to start a plan sometime	288	47.66
I do not care for exercise	7	1.16
Other	4	0.66
Q3. How do you describe your daily physical activity level?
Inactive: Practice less than 30 min of physical activity a day	176	29.14
Moderately active: Practice 30–60 min of physical activity a day	317	52.48
Highly active: Practice more than 60 min of physical activity a day	57	9.44
Not sure	54	8.94
Q4. When you exercise, what type of workouts do you perform?
Cardio only	224	37.09
Strength only	32	5.30
Stretching exercises only	34	5.63
A combination of cardio, strength, and stretching exercises	164	27.15
I do not exercise	135	22.35
Other	15	2.48

3.4 Sleeping habits

The questionnaire assessed respondents’ perceptions and practices of sleeping habits, revealing that 99% considered sleep important to their health and 90% believed it affects energy and daily life activity levels. About 28% of respondents reported getting adequate sleep, 22% did not, and 44% were uncertain. Only 25% received the recommended seven to nine hours daily as recommended by the CDC and the National Sleep Foundation [1,28], and 15% had inconsistent sleeping habits. Figure 1 demonstrates the respondents’ sleeping habits.

Figure 1

Respondents’ sleeping habits (n = 604).

3.5 Stress management

The questionnaire assessed participants’ perceptions of stress, revealing that 60% felt stress affects their daily activities and 95% believed its management is critical for their health. College and studying were the primary causes of daily stress, followed by social life, family, and friends. Respondents used various methods to manage stress, including planning alone time, listening to the Quran, socializing, exercising, listening to music, and seeking professional help. About 34% of respondents stated they lived with stress and did nothing about it. Figure 2 shows the respondents’ ways of dealing with their stress.

Figure 2

Respondents’ ways of dealing with stress (n = 604).

3.6 Health behavior and health conditions

A Chi-square test of association was conducted to detect if there is any relationship between health behavior and health conditions. The results revealed an association between the four examined lifestyle aspects and the students’ self-reported health conditions. Students who indicated consuming an unhealthy and imbalanced diet exhibited higher instances of health conditions, including anemia, asthma, and diabetes. Equally, students who reported a lack of adherence to an exercise plan tended to report elevated cases of health conditions like anemia, asthma, and diabetes. Moreover, those who reported experiencing stress – either always or sometimes – demonstrated increased cases of health conditions, including anemia, asthma, and diabetes, compared to those who claimed never to experience stress. Students expressing insufficient nightly sleep reported higher instances of health conditions such as anemia, asthma, and diabetes. However, this disparity did not reach statistical significance. Table 4 illustrates the results of the cross-tabulation Chi-square test showing the association between health behavior and health outcomes.

Table 4

The relationship between health behavior and health conditions (n = 604)

Health condition	Do you consider your diet to be well balanced?		How do you describe your daily physical activity level?			Do you get enough sleep at night?		How often do you feel stressed?
Health condition	Yes	Maybe/No	Highly active	Mod. active	Inactive	Yes	Maybe/No	Always	Sometimes	Never
Anaemia	8	103	40	6	65	22	89	49	59	3
Asthma	2	9	4	2	5	1	10	6	5	0
Diabetes	0	6	2	1	3	2	4	3	3	0
Healthy	72	319	146	41	204	121	270	95	274	21
Others	10	75	38	7	146	22	63	36	46	3
Column total	92	512	230	57	317	168	436	189	388	27
	p-value = 0.0321557*		p-value = 0.00001574*			p-value = 0.10682847		p-value = 0.00413291*

*p-value <0.05.

4 Discussion

The results showed the participating YUCW students were aware of the significance of a healthy lifestyle. Most respondents perceived a balanced diet, physical exercise, sleep, and stress management as essential for their health and well-being. However, the percentage of those who applied their knowledge to practice was low, indicating a gap between knowledge and practice. The finding revealed low compliance with diet, physical activity, and sleep time recommendations, highlighting the need for further education and support to help students translate their knowledge into healthy habits.

We assessed the participants’ dietary habits and compared the results with the Saudi Food and Drug Authority, CDC, and WHO guidelines. These guidelines recommend consuming a balanced diet that includes a variety of foods from all five food groups, including grains, vegetables, fruits, meats/proteins, and dairy products [1,2,27]. The recommendations call for adults to consume 6–11 servings of grains, 3–4 servings of vegetables, 2–3 servings of fruits, 2–3 servings of meat, and 1–2 servings of dairy products daily. We found that only 6% of participants consumed the recommended amounts of grains, 10% consumed the recommended amounts of vegetables, 23% consumed the recommended amounts of fruits, 20% consumed the recommended amounts of dairy products, and 24% consumed the recommended amounts of meat products. This lack of intake can lead to health problems and deficiencies, such as iron deficiency anemia. Anemia can result from poor diet choices, inadequate intake of iron-rich foods, and skipping meals [29,30]. Non-communicable diseases, such as type II diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and digestive tract problems, are also linked to poor diets and low nutritional values [1,2].

This study evaluated the YUCW students’ physical activity levels, comparing them to WHO and Saudi Health Authority recommendations. According to these guidelines, adults should perform at least 150 min of moderate physical activity, 75 min of vigorous activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate and vigorous exercise weekly [2,31]. Most respondents believed physical activity benefits their health, but only 52% were moderately active, 9% were highly active, and approximately 29% were inactive. YUCW students showed higher-than-average engagement in physical activity than the average female college students in Saudi Arabia, where recent studies showed inadequate adherence to physical activity recommendations [32,33]. This higher-than-avervage engagement in physical activity is likely due to mandatory physical education courses or increased awareness of the benefits. Even so, many students were inactive, suggesting room for improvement in promoting physical activity among YUCW students.

Physical activity can contribute to a reduced risk of chronic diseases, improved mental health and cognitive function, and increased energy and productivity [34,35]. Encouraging moderate to high levels of physical activity in daily routines can lead to significant health benefits, especially among college students. Capitalizing on the YUCW students’ awareness of the potential health benefits of physical activity may be enhanced with on-campus programs and incentives to increase participation.

We also found discrepancies between knowledge and behavior in sleeping habits among YUCW students. For optimal health, the CDC and the National Sleep Foundation recommend seven to nine hours of good sleep at night and consistent wake-up times [1,28]. Despite being aware of the importance of getting enough sleep, most students either did not get enough sleep or were unaware of their habits. Insufficient sleep is a common issue among college students, with 70% reporting insufficient sleep, leading to low academic performance [36]. Sleep significantly impacts physical, academic, and mental health, enhancing the immune system, memory, cognitive abilities, and learning [37,38,39,40]. Educational programs promoting physical activity and sleep quality are essential for university students to prioritize healthy habits.

This assessment revealed that a third of YUCW students experienced daily stress. Most respondents thought stress affected their daily activities, but about a third of them did nothing about it. Stress is a common issue among university students. Studies assessing stress levels in Saudi Arabia show that most university students suffer moderate to severe stress [41,42,43]. Stress can have a significant impact on the ability of college students to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Studies in the United States show that stress can lead to unhealthy eating habits, like skipping meals, overeating, or consuming high-fat and high-sugar food, and it negatively affects physical activity levels, sleep quality, and mental health [44,45]. Helping students learn stress management techniques could significantly enhance their quality of life. Our study revealed that some respondents had unique coping mechanisms for stress. Methods included planning alone time, listening or reciting the Holy Quran, socializing and spending time with family and friends, exercising, listening to music, and seeking help from a professional. However, about 34% of respondents stated that they simply tolerated stress and took no action to reduce it. Educational interventions that teach students stress-reduction strategies like meditation and other cognitive and behavioral interventions have been shown to reduce stress [46,47].

The results of our study indicate an association between self-reported lifestyle factors and the incidence of some health conditions among participants. Students who reported inadequate health behaviors, such as unhealthy eating habits, a lack of regular exercise, poor sleep quality, and high-stress levels, were more likely to report health issues like anemia, asthma, and diabetes, compared to their healthier peers. While this observation needs further analysis to confirm, it emphasizes the complex relationship between lifestyle choices and health outcomes [41,42,43,44,45,46]. The link between inadequate health behavior and the incidence of health conditions suggests the need for comprehensive interventions that address multiple facets of students’ well-being. It is crucial to recognize the potential cumulative impact of these lifestyle factors on health and to design targeted strategies that promote healthier dietary habits, regular physical activity, improved sleep hygiene, and stress management among the student population. These findings provide valuable insights into the broader discussion about the holistic relationship between lifestyle choices and health outcomes among students, emphasizing the importance of multifaceted approaches to promote overall well-being within educational settings.

5 Conclusion

The findings from this research emphasize the importance of YUCW students closing the knowledge-practice gap in leading healthy lives. Although most respondents were aware of the importance of lifestyle aspects, there is still a need for greater adherence to recommended guidelines. A balanced diet, physical exercise, sleep, and stress management are essential for health and well-being. Aspects of a healthy lifestyle are interrelated. When one part is lacking, there is a high chance that others will also be. The results of this study indicated that initiatives need to be taken to raise awareness and motivate students to put their knowledge into practice. Implementing initiatives, workshops, and educational programs encouraging healthy living and providing practical tips on maintaining a healthy lifestyle can significantly improve health outcomes. A wholesome approach throughout the YUCW campus, like in the cafeteria, the gymnasium, and the clinic, can also enhance awareness and behavior. Additionally, further research may be needed to understand the barriers and challenges that prevent YUCW students from practicing what they know about healthy living. By addressing these issues, YUCW can help its students lead healthier, happier lives and ultimately contribute to a healthier society. Overall, this study highlights the importance of raising students’ awareness and introducing ways to encourage and support implementing healthy lifestyle habits in their daily lives. By bridging the knowledge-practice gap, YUCW can improve the health and well-being of its students and, ultimately, society as a whole.

5.1 Study limitations

Our study provides insights into the healthy lifestyle behaviors of female college students. However, it is important to consider several limitations, including generalizability, self-reported data, other health behavior variables, and using a self-made questionnaire. It is essential to note that our findings are specific to YUCW students and may not extend to other populations. Additionally, our sample had more healthy students than those with reported unhealthy behavior, which likely influenced the observed associations. We found links between health behavior and conditions like anemia, asthma, and diabetes, but we cannot confirm causation without further analysis. As the study is observational, it is not possible to establish causal relationships, and future research with longitudinal or experimental designs is necessary.

Moreover, relying on self-reported data may introduce potential biases, such as recall and social desirability biases, which can affect the accuracy of our results. Future research should involve a more balanced sample and longitudinal studies. To improve the reliability of our findings, we recommend incorporating objective measures or using diverse data collection methods in future studies. Our study’s focus on specific lifestyle aspects may leave out crucial variables that influence health behaviors. Therefore, we encourage researchers to expand the scope of investigation to gain a more comprehensive understanding. It is important to note that using a self-made questionnaire may introduce biases or limitations in standardization and validation compared to established instruments. Therefore, caution should be exercised when interpreting and generalizing our study results.

Despite these limitations, our findings contribute valuable insights to the literature on healthy lifestyle behaviors among female college students. They serve as a foundation for future research, guiding the field toward the multifaceted factors shaping the health behaviors of this demographic.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Planning and and Quality Directorate and the Research Promotion Committee at Yanbu University College for approving the study.

Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. Conceptualization: AB and FN; methodology: AB and FN; formal analysis: FN; investigation: AB and FN; writing – original draft: AB; writing – review and editing: AB and FN; funding acquisition: not applicable; supervision: AB and FN.
Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
Informed consent: Informed consent has been obtained from all individuals included in this study.
Data availability statement: The datasets generated and analyzed during the study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-09-17

Revised: 2024-05-27

Accepted: 2024-06-17

Published Online: 2024-07-11

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/ohe-2023-0036

Keywords for this article

healthy lifestyle; health promotion; Saudi Arabia; university students

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