Zusammenfassung
Wie steht es um das Ausmaß islamistischer Einstellungen unter jungen Muslimen im deutschen Justizvollzug? Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, Radikalisierungspotenziale und damit in Verbindung stehende mögliche religionsbezogene Einflussfaktoren sowie die Dauer der bisher verbüßten Haft anhand einer Stichprobe von 87 jungen muslimischen Inhaftierten explorativ zu untersuchen. Die Teilnehmer bearbeiteten hierfür einen Fragebogen, in dem wir Fragen zu religiösen Sozialisationserfahrungen und aktueller Religiosität stellten, sowie Zustimmung zu fundamentalistischen und religiös-militanten Aussagen erhoben. Wir untersuchten die Häufigkeitsverteilungen fundamentalistischer und militanter Einstellungen und verglichen die Skalenmittelwerte von Muslimen mit einer nicht-muslimischen Vergleichsgruppe (n = 255). Anschließend berechneten wir Regressionsmodelle und modellierten Kausalketten, die die von uns untersuchten Konzepte durch Mediation miteinander verknüpften. Unsere Ergebnisse geben Hinweise auf eine erhöhte Vulnerabilität von muslimischen Gefangenen für Radikalisierung. Weiterhin geht aus unseren Ergebnissen hervor, dass Sozialisationseinflüsse zwar offenbar keinen unmittelbaren Einfluss haben, sich aber indirekt auf das Ausmaß militanter Einstellungen auswirken. Die bisher im Gefängnis verbrachte Zeit spielt eine untergeordnete Rolle. Wir diskutieren die Verallgemeinerbarkeit unserer Ergebnisse und mögliche Implikationen für den Strafvollzug.
Abstract
How widespread are Islamist attitudes in German prisons? The present research aims at exploring radicalization potentials as well as religion related factors among 87 young Muslim inmates in Bavarian prisons. Participants completed a survey in which we collected measures of religious socialization, religiousness, fundamentalism, and religious militancy. We investigated the distribution of fundamentalist and militant attitudes and compared the means of Muslims and non-Muslim prisoners (n = 255), calculated regressions, and modelled causal chains linking the relevant concepts through mediation. Our results indicate an increased vulnerability of Muslim inmates for religious radicalization. The results suggest that there is no immediate effect of religious socialization on religious militancy, but that it indirectly influences militant attitudes. The time spent in prison plays a subordinate role. Generalization and implications for the prison context are discussed.
Funding
This project was funded by the German Research Foundation(DFG; file number: STE923/10).
7 References
Ano, G.G. & Vasconcelles, E.B. (2005). Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology 61/4, 461–480. 10.1002/jclp.20049Search in Google Scholar
Armborst, A. (2014). Radicalisation and de-radicalisation of social movements: The comeback of political Islam? Crime, Law and Social Change 62/3, 235–255.10.1007/s10611-013-9464-8Search in Google Scholar
Backes, U. (2007). Meaning and forms of political extremism in past and present. Středoevropské politické studie 9/4, 242–262.Search in Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1969). Social-learning theory of identificatory processes, in: D.A. Goslin (ed.), Rand McNally sociology series. Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research. Chicago, 213–262Search in Google Scholar
Barkun, M. (2003). Religious violence and the myth of fundamentalism. Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 4/3, 55–70. 10.1080/14690760412331326230Search in Google Scholar
Basra, R., Neumann, P.R. & Brunner, C. (2016). Criminal pasts, terrorist futures: european jihadists and the new crime-terror nexus. London.Search in Google Scholar
Basra, R., & Neumann, P. R. (2017). Crime as Jihad. CTC Sentinel, 10/9, 1–5.Search in Google Scholar
Beller, J., & Kröger, C. (2018). Religiosity, religious fundamentalism, and perceived threat as predictors of Muslim support for extremist violence. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 10/4, 345–355.10.1037/rel0000138Search in Google Scholar
Beller, J., Kröger, C. & Hosser, D. (2019). Prädiktoren der Delinquenz bei adoleszenten Muslimen. Forensische Psychiatrie, Psychologie, Kriminologie, 13/2, 188–198. 10.1007/s11757-019-00523-wSearch in Google Scholar
Braam, A. W., & Koenig, H. G. (2019). Religion, spirituality and depression in prospective studies: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 257, 428–438.10.1016/j.jad.2019.06.063Search in Google Scholar
Bubolz, B.F. & Simi, P. (2015). Leaving the world of hate: Life-course transitions and self-change. American Behavioral Scientist 59/12, 1588–1608. 10.1177/0002764215588814Search in Google Scholar
Cohen S. (1972). Folk devils and moral panic: The creation of the mod and rockers. Oxford.Search in Google Scholar
Cornwall, M. (1988). The influence of three agents of religious socialization: Family, church, and peers, in: D.L. Thomas (ed.), Religious studies center specialized monograph series, Vol. 3. The religion & family connection: Social science perspectives. Provo, 207–231.Search in Google Scholar
Cronbach, L.J. (1946). Response sets and test validity. Educational and Psychological Measurement 6/4, 475–494. 10.1177/001316444600600405Search in Google Scholar
Dantschke, C. (2017). Attraktivität, Anziehungskraft und Akteure des politischen und militanten Salafismus in Deutschland [Attraction, gravitational force and agents of political and militant Salafism in Germany], in: A. Toprak & G. Weitzel (eds.), Salafismus in Deutschland: Jugendkulturelle Aspekte, pädagogische Perspektiven [Salafism in Germany: Aspects of Youth Culture, Pedagogic Perspectives]. Wiesbaden, 61–76. 10.1007/978-3-658-15097-6_4Search in Google Scholar
De Jong, T. & Ferguson-Hessler, M.G. (1996). Types and qualities of knowledge. Educational Psychologist 31/2, 105–113.10.1207/s15326985ep3102_2Search in Google Scholar
Dugas, M., Bélanger, J.J., Moyano, M., Schumpe, B.M., Kruglanski, A.W., Gelfand, M.J., . . . Nociti, N. (2016). The quest for significance motivates self-sacrifice. Motivation Science 2/1, 15–32. 10.1037/mot0000030Search in Google Scholar
Endres, J. & King, S. (2018a). Radikalisierung und Deradikalisierung im Justizvollzug [Radicalization and de-radicalization in the prison context], in: M. Walsh, B. Pniewski, M. Kober & A. Armborst (eds.), Evidenzorientierte Kriminalprävention in Deutschland [Evidence-Oriented Crime Prevention in Germany]. Wiesbaden, 511–530. 10.1007/978-3-658-20506-5_27Search in Google Scholar
Endres, J. & King, S. (2018b). Welche Rolle spielt religiöses Wissen für islamistische Radikalisierung? [What is the role of religious knowledge in the context of islamist radicalization?], in: K. Boers & M. Schaerff (eds.). Kriminologische Welt in Bewegung [The world of criminology in motion]. Mönchengladbach, 218–227. Search in Google Scholar
Ferguson, N. (2016). Disengaging from terrorism: A Northern Irish experience. Journal for Deradicalization, 6, 1–23. Search in Google Scholar
Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics: And sex and drugs and rock ›n‹ roll. 4th ed. Los Angeles.Search in Google Scholar
Frindte, W., Boehnke, K., Kreikenbom, H. & Wagner, W. (2011). Lebenswelten junger Muslime in Deutschland: Ein sozial- und medienwissenschaftliches System zur Analyse, Bewertung und Prävention islamistischer Radikalisierungsprozesse junger Menschen in Deutschland. [Life realitites of young Muslims in Germany: An analytical framework based on social and media science to assess and prevent islamis radicalization processes in Germany]. Berlin.Search in Google Scholar
Goede, L.-R. (2019). Islamistische Einstellungen und Verhaltensweisen unter muslimischen Jugendlichen [Islamist attitudes and behaviors among Muslim youth.] Zeitschrift für Jugendkriminalrecht und Jugendhilfe [Journal for Juvenile Criminal Law and Juvenile Welfare] 31/3, 204-213Search in Google Scholar
Goede, L.-R., Schröder, C. P. & Lehmann, L. (2020). Perspektiven von Jugendlichen. Ergebnisse einer Befragung zu den Themen Politik, Religion und Gemeinschaft im Rahmen des Projektes »Radikalisierung im digitalen Zeitalter (RadigZ)«. KFN-Forschungsberichte Nr. 151 [Perspectives of young people. Results of a survey on politics, religion and community within the project »Radicalization in the digital age (RadigZ)«. KFN Research Reports No. 151]. Hannover: Kriminologisches Forschungsinstitut Niedersachsen.Search in Google Scholar
Hamm, M.S. (2009). Prison islam in the age of sacred terror. British Journal of Criminology 49/5, 667–685. 10.1093/bjc/azp035Search in Google Scholar
Hayes, A.F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. 2nd ed. New York.Search in Google Scholar
Horgan, J. (2008). Deradicalization or disengagement? A process in need of clarity and a counterterrorism initiative in need of evaluation. Perspectives on Terrorism 2/4, 3–8.10.1174/021347409788041408Search in Google Scholar
Hosser, D. (2008). Prisonisierungseffekte. [Effects of prisonization], in: R. Volbert & M. Steller (eds.), Handbuch der Rechtspsychologie [Handbook of Legal Psychology]. Göttingen, 172–179.Search in Google Scholar
Johnson, B. R., Li, S. de, Larson, D. B. & McCullough, M. (2000). A systematic review of the religiosity and delinquency literature. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 16/1, 32–52. 10.1177/1043986200016001003Search in Google Scholar
Jones, C. R. (2014). Are prisons really schools for terrorism? Challenging the rhetoric on prison radicalization. Punishment and Society 16, 74–103. 10.1177/1462474513506482Search in Google Scholar
Jugl, I., Lösel, F., Bender, D. & King, S. (2020). Psychosocial prevention programs against radicalization and extremism: a meta-analysis of outcome evaluations. European Journal of Psychology applied to Legal Context 13/1, 37–46.10.5093/ejpalc2021a6Search in Google Scholar
Karimi, Y., Cimbura, A. & Loza, W. (2019). Assessing the prevalence of middle eastern extreme ideologies among some Iranians. Journal of Strategic Security 12/3, 157–169.10.5038/1944-0472.12.3.1719Search in Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A.W., Bélanger, J.J., Gelfand, M., Gunaratna, R., Hettiarachchi, M., Reinares, F., . . . Sharvit, K. (2013). Terrorism – a (self) love story: Redirecting the significance quest can end violence. The American Psychologist 68/7, 559–57510.1037/a0032615Search in Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A.W., Chen, X., Dechesne, M., Fishman, S. & Orehek, E. (2009). Fully committed: Suicide bombers‹ motivation and the quest for personal significance. Political Psychology 30/3, 331–357. 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00698.xSearch in Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A.W., Gelfand, M,J., Bélanger, J.J., Sheveland, A., Hetiarachchi, M. & Gunaratna, R. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Political Psychology 35, 69–93. 10.1111/pops.12163Search in Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A.W., Gelfand, M.J., Sheveland, A., Babush, M., Hetiarachchi, M., Ng Bonto, M. & Gunaratna, R. (2016). What a difference two years make: Patterns of radicalization in a Philippine jail. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 9/1–3, 13–36.10.1080/17467586.2016.1198042Search in Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A.W. & Orehek, E. (2011). The role of the quest for personal significance in motivating terrorism, in: J.P. Forgas, A.W. Kruglanski, and K.D. Williams (eds). The Psychology of Social Conflict and Aggression. New York, 153–164.Search in Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A.W. & Webber, D. (2014). The Psychology of radicalization. Zeitschrift für Internationale Strafrechtsdogmatik [Journal for International Criminal Law Doctrine] 9, 379–388.Search in Google Scholar
Kühle, L. (2012). In the faith of our fathers? Religious minority socialization in pluralistic societies. Nordic Journal of Religion and Society 25/2, 113–130.10.18261/ISSN1890-7008-2012-02-01Search in Google Scholar
Latif, M., Blee, K., DeMichele, M., Simi, P. & Alexander, S. (2020). Why white supremacist women become disillusioned, and why they leave. The Sociological Quarterly 61/3, 367–388.10.1080/00380253.2019.1625733Search in Google Scholar
Lienert, G.A. & Raatz, U. (1998). Testaufbau und Testanalyse [Test Construction and Test Analyssis]. 6. Aufl. [6th ed.] Weinheim.Search in Google Scholar
Lösel, F., Bender, D., Jugl, I. & King, S. (2020). Resilience against political and religious extremism, radicalization, and related violence: A systematic review of studies on protective factors, in: D. Weisburd, E.U. Savona, B. Hasisi & F. Calderoni (eds.), Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism. Cham, 55–84.10.1007/978-3-030-36639-1_3Search in Google Scholar
Loza, W. (2007). The Assessment and Treatment of Radicalization Scale (ATRS): A measure of Middle-Eastern extremism. Unpublished manuscript.Search in Google Scholar
Mansour, A. (2016). Generation Allah. Warum wir im Kampf gegen religiösen Extremismus umdenken müssen. [Generation Allah: Why the fight against religious fundamentalism requires us to re-think]. Frankfurt am Main. Search in Google Scholar
Marty, M. E. (1988). Fundamentalism as a social phenomenon. Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 42/2, 15–29.10.2307/3823264Search in Google Scholar
Maruna, S., Wilson, L. & Curran, K. (2006). Why God Is often found behind bars: Prison conversions and the crisis of self-narrative. Research in Human Development 3/2–3, 161–184. 10.1207/s15427617rhd0302&3_6Search in Google Scholar
McCauley, C. & Moskalenko, S. (2017). Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model. American Psychologist 72/3, 205–216.10.1037/amp0000062Search in Google Scholar
Moghaddam, F.M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. American Psychologist 60/2, 161–169.10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.161Search in Google Scholar
Mulcahy, E., Merrington, S. & Bell, P.J. (2013). The radicalisation of prison inmates: A review of the literature on recruitment, religion and prisoner vulnerability. Journal of Human Security 9/1, 4–14. 10.12924/johs2013.09010004Search in Google Scholar
Neumann, P. (2010). Prisons and terrorism. Radicalisation and de-radicalisation in 15 countries. London. Search in Google Scholar
Norko, M. A., Freeman, D., Phillips, J., Hunter, W., Lewis, R., & Viswanathan, R. (2017). Can religion protect against suicide?. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 205/1, 9–14.10.1097/NMD.0000000000000615Search in Google Scholar
Oliver, P. & Johnston, H. (2000). What a good idea! Ideologies and frames in social movement research. Mobilization: An International Quarterly 5/1, 37–54. 10.17813/maiq.5.1.g54k222086346251Search in Google Scholar
Ostroff, C. & Kozlowski, S.W. (1992). Organizational socialization as a learning process: The role of information acquisition. Personnel Psychology 45/4, 849–874.10.1111/j.1744-6570.1992.tb00971.xSearch in Google Scholar
Rappaport, A.J., Veldhuis, T. & Guiora, A.N. (2013). Homeland security and the inmate population: The risk and reality of Islamic radicalization in prison, in: L. Gideon (ed.), Special Needs Ofenders in Correctional Institutions. Thousand Oaks, 431–458.10.4135/9781452275444.n15Search in Google Scholar
Reinares, F. (2011). Exit from terrorism: A qualitative empirical study on disengagement and deradicalization among members of ETA. Terrorism and Political Violence 23/5, 780–803.10.1080/09546553.2011.613307Search in Google Scholar
Ribeaud, D. & Eisner, M. (2010). Are moral disengagement, neutralization techniques, and self-serving cognitive distortions the same? Developing a unified scale of moral neutralization of aggression. International Journal of Conflict and Violence 4/2, 298–315.Search in Google Scholar
Rocheleau, A. M. (2013). An empirical exploration of the »pains of imprisonment« and the level of prison misconduct and violence. Criminal Justice Review 38/3, 354–374.10.1177/0734016813494764Search in Google Scholar
Ronco, D., Sbraccia, A. & Torrente, G. (2019). Prison de-radicalization strategies, programmes and risk assessment tools in Europe. Rome.Search in Google Scholar
Saucier, G., Akers, L.G., Shen-Miller, S., Kneževié, G. & Stankov, L. (2009). Patterns of thinking in militant extremism. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science 4/3, 256–271. 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01123.xSearch in Google Scholar
Schuurman, B. & Eijkman, Q. (2013). Moving terrorism research forward: The crucial role of primary sources. Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Studies. The Hague.10.19165/2013.2.02Search in Google Scholar
Sherkat, D. E. (2003). Religious socialization, in: M. Dillon (ed.), Handbook of the Sociology of Religion. Cambridge, 151–163.10.1017/CBO9780511807961.012Search in Google Scholar
Sikkens, E., van San, M., Sieckelinck, S., & de Winter, M. (2017). Parental influence on radicalization and de-radicalization according to the lived experiences of former extremists and their families. Journal for Deradicalization 12, 192–226.Search in Google Scholar
Silber, M.D. & Bhatt, A. (2007). Radicalization in the West: The homegrown threat. New York. Search in Google Scholar
Silke, A. (2001). The devil you know: Continuing problems with research on terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence 13/4, 1–14. 10.1080/09546550109609697Search in Google Scholar
Silke, A. & Veldhuis, T. (2017). Countering violent extremism in prisons: A review of key recent research and critical research gaps. Perspectives on Terrorism 11, 2–11. Search in Google Scholar
Simi, P., Windisch, S., Harris, D. & Ligon, G. (2019). Anger from within: The role of emotions in disengagement from violent extremism. Journal of Qualitative Criminal Justice & Criminology 7/2.10.21428/88de04a1.7dc6a559Search in Google Scholar
Sinai, J. (2014). Developing a model of prison radicalization, in: A. Silke (ed.), Prisons, terrorism and extremism: Critical issues in management, radicalisation and reform. London, 35–46.10.4324/9780203584323-3Search in Google Scholar
Spalek, B. & El-Hasan, S. (2007). Muslim converts in prison. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 46/2, 99–114. 10.1111/j.1468-2311.2007.00459.xSearch in Google Scholar
Sykes, G.M. (1958). The society of captives. Princeton. Search in Google Scholar
Thomas, J. & Zaitzow, B.H. (2006). Conning or conversion? The role of religion in prison coping. The Prison Journal 86/2, 242–259.10.1177/0032885506287952Search in Google Scholar
Trujillo, H.M., Jordán, J., Antonio Gutiérrez, J. & González-Cabrera, J. (2009). Radicalization in prisons? Field research in 25 Spanish prisons. Terrorism and Political Violence 21/4, 558–579. 10.1080/09546550903153134Search in Google Scholar
Veldhuis, T. & Staun, J. (2009). Islamist radicalisation: A root cause model. The Hague. Search in Google Scholar
Webber, D. & Kruglanski, A.W. (2017). Psychological factors in radicalization: A »3N« approach, in: G. LaFree & J.D. Freilich (eds.), The Handbook of the Criminology of Terrorism. Vol. 14. Hoboken, 33–46.10.1002/9781118923986.ch2Search in Google Scholar
Wiktorowicz, Q. (2006). Anatomy of the Salafi movement. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29/3, 207–239.10.1080/10576100500497004Search in Google Scholar
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- Extremism, Radicalization and Terrorism: Editorial
- Micro and macro-level risk factors for extremism and terrorism: Toward a criminology of extremist violence
- Perceived injustice, perceived group threat and self-reported right-wing violence: An integrated approach
- Does context matter? European-specific risk factors for radicalization
- Pathways to radicalization in adolescence: The development of ideological beliefs, acceptance of violence, and extremist behavior
- Left-wing extremist violence: Risk and protective factors in a targeted sample of potential extremists
- Radicalization potentials of young Muslims in prison: What role do religious factors play?
- The families of Dutch terrorist suspects: Risk and protective factors among parents and siblings
- Psychological Differences between Radicalized and non-Radicalized Muslim Prisoners: A Qualitative Analysis of their Frame Alignment
- Concept of and approaches toward a developmental prevention of radicalization: Promising strategies to keep young people away from political, religious, and other forms of extremism
- The Phoenix Model of Disengagement and Deradicalisation from Terrorism and Violent Extremism
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- Extremism, Radicalization and Terrorism: Editorial
- Micro and macro-level risk factors for extremism and terrorism: Toward a criminology of extremist violence
- Perceived injustice, perceived group threat and self-reported right-wing violence: An integrated approach
- Does context matter? European-specific risk factors for radicalization
- Pathways to radicalization in adolescence: The development of ideological beliefs, acceptance of violence, and extremist behavior
- Left-wing extremist violence: Risk and protective factors in a targeted sample of potential extremists
- Radicalization potentials of young Muslims in prison: What role do religious factors play?
- The families of Dutch terrorist suspects: Risk and protective factors among parents and siblings
- Psychological Differences between Radicalized and non-Radicalized Muslim Prisoners: A Qualitative Analysis of their Frame Alignment
- Concept of and approaches toward a developmental prevention of radicalization: Promising strategies to keep young people away from political, religious, and other forms of extremism
- The Phoenix Model of Disengagement and Deradicalisation from Terrorism and Violent Extremism