Past–future asymmetries in time adverbials and adpositions: A crosslinguistic and diachronic perspective
-
Borja Herce
Abstract
Expressions like English ago have been claimed to be among the most likely candidates for postposition crosslinguistically, and the reason for this has been conjectured to be diachronic. A few previous contributions notwithstanding, however, we still lack a typologically wider-ranging account of such temporal adpositions and adverbials and of how they develop. These are the main goals of the present article. Relying on a sample of 100 languages, it has been found that: (i) the structure instantiated in English by ago is far from universal and is geographically unevenly distributed; (ii) these expressions are indeed predominantly postposed, which does not hold for their mirror images for the future; and (iii) evidence from etymology, patterns of polysemy, and documented semantic extensions suggests that this asymmetry is the result of past and future markers having different diachronic sources.
Acknowledgements
The financial support of the European Commission’s Backis Programme (2012-2741 /001-001 - EMA2) and of the Government of the Basque Country (PRE_2015_1_0175) are gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks are due to Carlos-García Castillero and Iván Igartua for their comments on earlier versions of this article. I also thank three anonymous reviewers of LT for their helpful remarks.
Abbreviations
- 1/2/3
1st/2nd/3rd person
- abl
ablative
- acc
accusative
- aux
auxiliary verb
- cl
classifier
- comp
complementizer
- erg
ergative
- f
feminine
- fd
future distancer
- fut
future
- ipf
imperfect
- ipfv
imperfective
- iness
inessive
- loc
locative
- m
masculine
- neg
negation
- nom
nominative
- part
partitive
- PD
past distancer
- pl
plural
- pst
past tense
- q
question particle
- refl
reflexive
- sg
singular.
Appendix
Word order of time distancers, their polysemy vs. monosemy, and preferred word order of adpositions for the sample languages
| Language | Past distancer | PD dedicated? | Future distancer | FD dedicated? | Adposition |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dutch | NP PD | Yes | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| English | NP PD | Yes | FD NP | No | Prep |
| German | PD NP | No | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Swedish | PD NP PD | Yes | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| French | PD NP | Yes | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| Italian | NP PD | Yes | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| Romanian | PD NP | Yes | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| Spanish | PD NP | Yes | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| Bulgarian | PD NP | No | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Polish | NP PD | No | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| Russian | NP PD | Yes | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| Serbian/Croatian | PD NP | No | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| Hindi | NP PD | NP FD | Post | ||
| Pashto | NP PD | No | Post | ||
| Persian | NP PD | No | NP FD | Prep | |
| Punjabi | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Breton | NP PD | FD NP | No | Prep | |
| Irish | NP PD | Yes | FD NP | Yes | Prep |
| Welsh | NP PD | Yes | FD NP | Prep | |
| Latvian | PD NP | No | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Lithuanian | PD NP | No | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Albanian | PD NP | No | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Armenian | NP PD | No | NP FD | Post | |
| Greek | PD NP | No | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Arabic | PD NP | No | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Hausa | PD NP PD | Yes | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Hebrew | PD NP | No | FD NP | Prep | |
| Maltese | NP PD | Yes | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Mehri | PD NP | No | Prep | ||
| Oromo | NP PD | No | NP PD | Post | |
| Igbo | NP PD | FD NP | Prep | ||
| Swahili | FD NP | No | Prep | ||
| Thimbukushu | PD NP | No | Prep | ||
| Yoruba | NP PD | Prep | |||
| Indonesian | NP PD | NP FD | Prep | ||
| Maori | NP PD | Yes | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Tagalog | PD NP | FD NP | Prep | ||
| Mandarin Chinese | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post/SVO |
| Taiwanese | NP PD | NP FD | Post/SVO | ||
| Tibetan | NP PD | Post | |||
| Kannada | NP PD | NP-FD | Post | ||
| Malayalam | NP PD | No | NP FD | Post | |
| Tamil | NP PD | No | NP FD | Post | |
| Telugu | NP PD | ||||
| Estonian | NP PD | Yes | NP FD | No | Post |
| Finnish | NP PD | No | NP-FD | Yes | Post |
| Hungarian | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Udmurt | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Chechen | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Hunzib | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Lezgian | NP PD | No | NP-FD | No | Post |
| Evenki | NP PD | Post | |||
| Nanai | NP PD | NP FD | Post | ||
| Udihe | NP PD | NP FD | Post | ||
| Haitian | PD NP | No | FD NP | No | Prep |
| Saramaccan | NP PD | FD NP | Prep | ||
| Slave | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Lao | NP PD | FD NP | Prep | ||
| Thai | NP PD | FD NP | Prep | ||
| Azeri | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Turkish | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Hopi | NP FD | Post | |||
| Abkhaz | NP PD | No | NP FD | Post | |
| Abui | PD NP | Yes | nd/SOV | ||
| Basque | PD NP | Yes | NP FD | Yes | Post |
| Georgian | NP PD | No | NP-FD | No | Post |
| Japanese | NP PD | No | NP FD | No | Post |
| Kalaallisut | NP PD | No | Post | ||
| Korean | NP PD | No | NP FD | Post | |
| Mongolian | NP PD | Post | |||
| Quechua | Clausal | NP-FD | No | Post | |
| Semelai | NP PD | NP | Prep | ||
| Tepehua | NP PD | NP | Prep |
Examples of past and future distance phrases
| Language (source) | |
|---|---|
| Past distance phrase | Future distance phrase |
| Dutch (Donaldson 2008) | |
| twee uur geleden ‘two hours ago’ | overtwee uur ‘in two hours’ |
| English (personal knowledge) | |
| three hours ago | inone year |
| German (personal knowledge) | |
| vorzwei Jahren ‘two years ago’ | inzwei Monaten ‘in two months’ |
| Swedish (Haspelmath 1997: 163, 165) | |
| förfjorton år sedan ‘fourteen years ago’ | omtvå dagar ‘in two days’ |
| French (personal knowledge) | |
| il y adeux ans ‘two years ago’ | dansdeux jours ‘in two days’ |
| Italian (personal knowledge) | |
| due anni fa ‘two years ago’ | tradue anni ‘in two years’ |
| Romanian (Mallinson 1986: 238) | |
| acumo lună ‘a month ago’ | pesteo lună ‘in a month’ |
| Spanish (personal knowledge) | |
| haceun año ‘one year ago’ | dentro deun año ‘in one year’ |
| Bulgarian (Haspelmath 1997: 164) | |
| prediedna sedmica ‘1 week ago’ | slededna sedmica ‘in one week’ |
| Polish (Haspelmath 1997: 164) | |
| sześć miesięcy temu ‘six months ago’ | zatydzień ‘in a week’ |
| Russian (personal knowledge) | |
| dva goda nazad ‘two years ago’ | čerezgod ‘in a year’ |
| Serbian/Croatian (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| priječetrnaest godina ‘fourteen years ago’ | dodva dana ‘in two days’ |
| Hindi (Bipasha Patgiri, personal communication) | |
| ek sāl pehle ‘one year ago’ | ek sāl bād ‘in one year’ |
| Pashto (David 2014) | |
| tso wradze wṛānde ‘some days ago’ | |
| Persian (Mahootian 2002: 187) | |
| do sa’æt piš ‘two hours ago’ | yek sa’æt dige ‘in one hour’ |
| Punjabi (Bhatia 1993: 211–214) | |
| do saal páílãã ‘two years ago’ | do kàṇṭe vicc ‘in two hours’ |
| Breton (Press 1986: 76) | |
| bloaz ‘zo ‘a year ago’ | araokmiz ‘in a month’ |
| Irish (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| bliain ó shin ‘a year ago’ | i gcionntrí lá ‘in three days’ |
| Welsh (King 2005: 253–254) | |
| ddwy flynedd yn ôl ‘two years ago’ | ymhenmis ‘in a month’ |
| Latvian (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| pirmsgada ‘a year ago’ | pēcdivām stundām ‘in two hours’ |
| Lithuanian (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| prieštris dienas ‘three days ago’ | pokelių minučių ‘in a few minutes’ |
| Albanian (Buchholz & Fiedler 1987: 384) | |
| para disa ditësh ‘a few days ago’ | pasnjë jave ‘in a week’ |
| Armenian (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 166) | |
| erku žam aṙaǰ ‘two hours ago’ | erku taru-c‘ heto ‘in two years’ |
| Greek (Joseph & Philippaki-Warburton 1987: 148) | |
| prín apóδjó óres ‘two hours ago’ | setrís óres ‘in three hours’ |
| Arabic (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 166) | |
| munðuʔarbaʕati ʔayyaamin ‘four days ago’ | baʕdayawmayni ‘in two days’ |
| Hausa (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 166) | |
| cikinawàa biyun dà sukà wucèe ‘two hours ago’ | baayanshèekaràa ukkù ‘in three years’ |
| Hebrew (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 166) | |
| lifneyšloša yamim ‘three days ago’ | ʕodyomayim ‘in two days’ |
| Maltese (Borg & Azzopardi-Alexander 1997: 171) | |
| erbat ijiem ilu ‘four days ago’ | fiftit minuti ‘in a few minutes’ |
| Mehri (Rubin 2010) | |
| fǝnōhǝnhōba snayn ‘seven years ago’ | |
| Oromo (Owens 1985: 228) | |
| torbáan afur dúrá ‘four weeks ago’ | saa’áa takko xeesatti ‘in one hour’ |
| Igbo (Ọkọnkwọ 1974) | |
| afo abuo gara aga ‘two years ago’ | n’imeafo abuo ‘in two years’ |
| Swahili (Mohammed 2001) | |
| baada yasiku mbili ‘in two days’ | |
| Thimbukushu (Fisch 1998) | |
| kughuthoghomyaka dhiwadi ‘two years ago’ | |
| Yoruba (Bamgboṣe 2010) | |
| ogún ọdún se.hìn ‘twenty years ago’ | |
| Indonesian (Sneddon et al. 2012: 226) | |
| dua minggu lalu ‘two weeks ago’ | dua hari lagi ‘in two days’ |
| Maori (Bauer 2003) | |
| rua haora noa atu raa ‘two hours ago’ | ate rua haora ‘in two hours’ |
| Tagalog (Schachter & Otanes 1972: 441–442) | |
| noongisang linggo ‘seven years ago’ | sa loob ngisang linggo ‘in one week’ |
| Mandarin Chinese (Yip & Rimmington 2009) | |
| sì nián qián ‘four years ago’ | sì nián yǐhòu ‘in four years’ |
| Taiwanese (Lin 2015: 510) | |
| sì nî chêng ‘four years ago’ | sì nî í-āu ‘in four years’ |
| Tibetan (Goldstein et al. 1991: 90) | |
| lō sūmgi ŋȫntu ‘year three ago’ | |
| Kannada (Sridhar 1990: 193–194) | |
| ardha gaNTeya hinde ‘half an hour ago’ | eraDu gaNTey-alli ‘in two hours’ |
| Malayalam (Asher & Kumari 1997: 243–244) | |
| raɳʈǝ maɳikkuur munpǝ ‘two hours ago’ | raɳʈǝ maɳikkuuɽ-il ‘in two hours’ |
| Tamil (Asher 1982: 131–132) | |
| muuɳu maɳi-kki munnaale ‘three hours ago’ | raɳʈu maɳi neerattle ‘in two hours’ |
| Telugu (Krishnamurti & Gwynn 1985: 102) | |
| gaNTa kindaTa ‘an hour ago’ | |
| Estonian (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| kaks tundi tagasi ‘two hours ago’ | kahe tunni pärast ‘in two hours’ |
| Finnish (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| kolme vuotta sitten ‘four years ago’ | tunnin-päästä ‘in an hour’ |
| Hungarian (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| három hét előtt ‘three weeks ago’ | három hét múlva ‘in three weeks’ |
| Udmurt (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| odig ar taleś aźlo ‘one year ago’ | odig ćas bere ‘in one hour’ |
| Chechen (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| pxi šo ħalxa ‘five years ago’ | ill minot jälča ‘in ten minutes’ |
| Hunzib (van den Berg 1995: 64–65) | |
| q’anu anƛ’i art’o ‘two weeks ago’ | λaʕel muğáƛ ‘in a year’ |
| Lezgian (Haspelmath 1993) | |
| 250 jis idalaj wilik ‘250 years ago’ | q’we wacra-laj ‘in two months’ |
| Evenki (Nedjalkov 1997) | |
| ilanma tyrganilva amaski ‘three days ago’ | umun bega-li ‘in one month’ |
| Nanai (Haspelmath 1997: 164) | |
| ǯuer ajŋaniwa xamasi ‘two years ago’ | ǯuer ajŋani-du bipie ‘in two years’ |
| Udihe (Nikolaeva & Tolskaya 2001) | |
| zu: neŋini bimi ‘two days ago’ | tuŋama neŋi bis’esi ‘in five days’ |
| Haitian (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| fèkat jou ‘four days ago’ | nankèk jou ankò ‘in a few days’ |
| Saramaccan (McWhorter & Good 2012: 194) | |
| tú dáka pasá ‘two days ago’ | bákadií sába ‘in three Saturdays’ |
| Slave (Rice 1989: 295–297) | |
| tǫ dzene t’ǫh ‘many days ago’ | tai dzene ndah ‘in three days’ |
| Lao (Khanitta Mancktelow, personal communication) | |
| săwng ąa-thit lâew ‘two weeks ago’ iik sawng deuan ‘in two months’ | ìik săwng dęuan ‘in two months’ |
| Thai (Smyth 2014) | |
| sǎam wan maa lɛɛw ‘three days ago’ | ìikhòk wan ‘in six days’ |
| Azeri (Gunel Yashar, personal communication) | |
| üç il əvvəl ‘three years ago’ | üç il ərzində ‘in three years’ |
| Turkish (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| iki yıl önce ‘two years ago’ | iki gün sonra ‘in two days’ |
| Hopi (Malotki 1983: 36) | |
| hikis taala-t ang ‘in a few days’ | |
| Abkhaz (Hewitt 1979) | |
| y°ә-sàat-k’ r-àpx’a ‘two hours ago’ | y°ә-sàat-k’ rә̀-la ‘in two hours’ |
| Abui (Kratochvíl 2007) | |
| afehetung nuku ‘a year ago’ | |
| Basque (personal knowledge) | |
| duelaehun urte ‘one hundred years ago’ | bi urte barru ‘in two years’ |
| Georgian (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 165) | |
| or saatis c’in ‘two hours ago’ | or saat-ši ‘in two hours’ |
| Japanese (Hinds 2003: 221) | |
| nijikan mae kara ‘two hours ago’ | nijikan de ‘in two hours’ |
| Kalaallisut (Fortescue 1984: 241) | |
| nalunaaquttap akunniri pingasut matuma siurnagut ‘three hours ago’ | |
| Korean (Haspelmath 1997: 164, 166) | |
| twu sikan cen-ey ‘two hours ago’ | sam nyen twi-ey ‘in three years’ |
| Mongolian (Gaunt & Bayarmandakh 2004) | |
| gurvan ødriin ømnø ‘three days ago’ | |
| Quechua (Cole 1985: 126–127) | |
| ishkay uras-pi ‘in two hours’ | |
| Semelai (Kruspe 2004) | |
| hmpɛʔ ʔareʔ lɒc ‘three days ago’ | hmpɛʔ ʔareʔ ‘in three days’ |
| Tepehua (Kung 2007: 505) | |
| miix-kiis-chich ‘five days ago’ | miix-kiis ‘in five days’ |
For the languages lacking the relevant structures see Givón (2011) for Ute, Carlson (1994) for Supyire, Valentine (2001) for Nishnaabemwin, Dayley (1985) for Tzutujil, Macaulay (1996) for Mixtec, Besnier (2002: 354–355) for Tuvaluan, Maslova (2003) for Yukaghir, Cook (2013) for Tsilhqút’ín, van den Berg (1989) for Muna, Noonan (1992) for Lango, Guillaume (2008) for Caviñena, Meakins & Nordlinger (2013) for Bilinarra, Plaisier (2006) for Lepcha, Simpson (1983) for Warlpiri, Derbyshire (1985) for Hixkaryana, Bowern (2012) for Bardi, Aikhenvald (2003) for Tariana, Nedjalkov & Otaina (2013) for Nivkh, Wegener (2012) for Savosavo, Dixon & Vogel (2004) for Jarawara, Evans (1995) for Kayardild, Terrill (2003) for Lavukaleve, and Childs (2011) for Mani.
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Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Articles
- Signing not (or not): A typological perspective on standard negation in Sign Language of the Netherlands
- Copy-verb constructions in Tibeto-Burman and beyond
- Past–future asymmetries in time adverbials and adpositions: A crosslinguistic and diachronic perspective
- Possessor dissension: Agreement mismatch in Ngumpin-Yapa possessive constructions
- Do grammatical relations reflect information status? Reassessing Preferred Argument Structure theory against discourse data from Tondano
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Articles
- Signing not (or not): A typological perspective on standard negation in Sign Language of the Netherlands
- Copy-verb constructions in Tibeto-Burman and beyond
- Past–future asymmetries in time adverbials and adpositions: A crosslinguistic and diachronic perspective
- Possessor dissension: Agreement mismatch in Ngumpin-Yapa possessive constructions
- Do grammatical relations reflect information status? Reassessing Preferred Argument Structure theory against discourse data from Tondano
