Shaping Public Library Legitimacy: Case Analysis of the New York Public Library

1.1 The Legitimacy of Modern Public Libraries

The legitimacy of modern public libraries has been consistently questioned. This scrutiny arises from the fact that public libraries primarily operate as public institutions or non-profit organizations deeply rooted in their respective communities and societies, yet they inherently encounter difficulties in achieving complete autonomy. For instance, the establishment of the Boston Public Library–the first library in America that was established by an Act (of the Massachusetts legislature) and supported by municipal taxes–prompted extensive debates regarding the necessity and utility of the library, its role as a lending library serving the entire populace, and its financial standing, organizational structure, and public perception (Whitehill 1956). Similar discussions were evident during the founding of the New York Public Library (NYPL), where the institution’s provision of services to the diverse ethnic communities of New York City was debated from multiple perspectives, including funding through taxes and donations from the Carnegie Foundation and operational management by professional staff (Glynn 2015). These debates are intrinsically linked to the legitimacy of public libraries.

As we enter the twenty-first century, which has been characterized by societal shifts such as the proliferation of the Internet, the discourse surrounding the relevance of traditional libraries has become even more pronounced. One example concerns the NYPL, an institution that embarked on a large-scale renovation project in 2014. The initial plans, unveiled in 2012, were abandoned because of a lack of public support, leading to a revised plan that emphasized citizen participation and dialogue. A key factor in questioning the legitimacy of this project was financial concerns exacerbated by economic downturns, which were addressed through town meetings that reaffirmed the necessity of a communal space for citizens in the twenty-first century (New York Public Library 2015).

The core concept that this case study seeks to elucidate is that of legitimacy, which can be described as “a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions” (Suchman 1995, 574). Organizational legitimacy can be described as “the degree of cultural support for an organization” (Meyer and Scott 1983, 201), and in order to obtain and maintain organizational legitimacy, managers engage in legitimation work (Larsen, Kann-Rasmussen, and Rivano Eckerdal 2022, 173). Some of this work is directed towards the construction of annual reports, which we study in this article.

1.2 Previous Research on the Legitimacy of Modern Public Libraries

A representative survey that offers a comprehensive perspective on American public libraries in the twentieth century is the Public Library Inquiry. This survey, conducted by social scientists who analysed the state of public libraries at the time, was later reconstructed from the perspective of legitimacy by Raber (1997). In “Librarianship and Legitimacy”, he reanalyzed the Public Library Inquiry in light of the historical context and described the legitimacy of American public libraries from the standpoint of librarianship. Specifically, he identified the creation of a democratic culture, the promotion of basic information literacy, the library economy (particularly efficiency and effectiveness), and professional librarianship as aspects of legitimacy. However, his descriptions were not a systematic enumeration of these elements, nor did he clearly delineate them as constituents of legitimacy. The Public Library Inquiry was supported by an initiative of the Social Science Research Council, funded by the Carnegie Corporation, and its findings were compiled into a report that integrated the results of 19 special research projects. This survey demonstrated the significant role that librarians’ efforts played in the creation and maintenance of America’s democratic culture, providing evidence that librarians, and by extension, public libraries, contributed to the public good (Berelson 1949; Garceau 1949; Leigh 1994).

Nevertheless, the legitimacy of public libraries has come under increasing scrutiny in the twenty-first century against the backdrop of the diversification of library functions and the widespread adoption of information technology. A notable example is the revision of Norway’s Library Act, which suggests that the role of libraries as communal spaces holds the potential for a new form of legitimacy (Golten 2022). More generally, Usherwood (2007) has explored the challenges and opportunities encountered by public libraries striving to prioritize equity and foster excellence in their services and collections. Although he does not explicitly use the term “legitimacy” in his conclusions, the literature includes extensive discussions of legitimacy, spanning the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.

Audunson et al. (2019) conducted a survey across six European countries, exploring librarians’ perceptions of public libraries’ roles in the twenty-first century, particularly in supporting a democratic public sphere. Their findings highlight that traditional legitimation means, like promoting cultural heritage, providing equal access to knowledge and literature, and supporting learning, remain paramount. While these traditional services are crucial, the study also emphasizes the importance of libraries as community meeting spaces for well-informed citizens to participate in the community and engage in open discussions. Sørensen (2020) conducted a systematic literature review where he identified 19 articles on the value and significance of public libraries. He found that stakeholders’ perceived values of public libraries point to a range of aspects of life at the public library, which demonstrate their value as a comprehensive resource for the community.

Additionally, in her doctoral thesis, Cusick (2020) attempted to apply legitimacy as an indicator in the field of library evaluation. Legitimacy is a crucial concept in institutional theory that has largely been overlooked in the field of library and information science. Cusick’s quantitative analysis examined the relationships between library service variables, community socioeconomic characteristics, and outcomes related to the legitimacy of public libraries in the United States. Similarly, Yamagishi, Koizumi, and Larsen (2024) conducted a comprehensive literature review on legitimacy in the twenty-first century, providing a detailed analysis through close reading and discussions among co-researchers that identified the dimensions of legitimacy. The unchanging dimensions of legitimacy as compared to the twentieth century serve as evidence of public libraries’ enduring commitment to their long-term operations and steadfast dedication to their principles and mission. By extracting related concepts from previous studies and reorganizing them, they offered a detailed account of the legitimacy of public libraries in the twenty-first century. In this study, we draw on the framework established by Yamagishi, Koizumi, and Larsen’s (2024) work and conduct a deductive analysis of legitimacy at NYPL to identify how the elements of twenty-first century public library legitimacy are portrayed in the NYPL’s annual reports.

1.3 Overview of Previous Research on Legitimacy and Purposes of this Study

In discussing the legitimacy of public libraries in the twenty-first century, Yamagishi, Koizumi, and Larsen (2024) conceptually elucidated the dimensions of legitimacy by organising the rhetoric, cases, and phenomena addressed in previous research. These dimensions were conceptually described by aggregating individual cases. In this article, we will examine how the various dimensions relate to each other within a single library. This approach allows for a detailed examination of a single case while simultaneously relating to the overall picture of public library legitimacy. To conduct such an analysis, we chose the NYPL as our case, as it is one of the largest public libraries in the world and has been continuously addressing social issues for centuries.

The purpose of this study is to empirically elucidate the elements of legitimacy in twenty-first-century public libraries by focusing on the case of NYPL. The study aim is to conduct a qualitative content analysis of NYPL’s annual reports to elucidate how legitimacy is enacted within a single public library. The research questions are as follows:

2.1 Analytical Framework

This study utilizes the dimensions of twenty-first-century public library legitimacy, as proposed by Yamagishi, Koizumi, and Larsen (2024), as its analytical framework. These dimensions are 1) Democracy; 2) Culture and History; 3) Communication and Education; 4) Economy; and 5) Librarianship. In their study, legitimacy from the citizens’ perspective is defined as “the degree of cultural support for the institution of public library as well as specific library organisations, and further whether the actions of library managers and staff are viewed as desirable, proper, or appropriate by the public they serve and the bodies they rely on for funding” (Yamagishi, Koizumi, and Larsen 2024, 2).

The core concepts of legitimacy within each dimension include: 1) ensuring the right to knowledge for all citizens, including the socially disadvantaged, and supporting democratic ideals from a neutral standpoint; 2) collecting and preserving materials to maintain culture and history passed down through regions and nations, serving as symbols for communities and countries; 3) providing educational resources to support lifelong learning and social education facilities through a wide range of services based on knowledge and education, thereby supporting a democratic and cultural society; 4) offering public goods based on the principle of free access through relationships with external organisations; and 5) providing services based on professional knowledge, actively engaging with citizens and communities, and earning trust.

This comprehensive framework of legitimacy dimensions allows for an analysis of how legitimacy is enacted in specific library organizations. By analyzing annual reports, we can study how these dimensions are made visible by managers when composing these reports as part of their legitimation work.

2.2 Process of Qualitative Content Analysis

A qualitative content analysis was conducted on 24 of NYPL’s annual reports from 2000 to 2023. These reports provide detailed accounts of the social contexts of each year, alongside the library’s services and achievements. Additionally, other service plans and multi-year strategic plans were also collected to supplement the analysis and discussion. This qualitative content analysis utilized the dimensions identified in previous research (Yamagishi, Koizumi, and Larsen 2024). Annual reports are documents that portray a library’s accomplishments and seek to demonstrate its legitimacy to society. They function as intermediaries of public accountability, and often emphasize elements that reinforce legitimacy and provide detailed explanations of activities related to it. The key ideals, missions, and statements articulated in these reports are rhetorically and logically clear, frequently incorporating cases and episodes that are strongly connected to the dimensions of library legitimacy. These episodes and cases span across and link the various elements of public library legitimacy, enabling a logical explanation of the mechanisms underlying these interconnections. By studying these documents, we are able to address the interrelationships among the dimensions of public library legitimacy. Through a detailed case study of the NYPL annual reports, this research seeks to explore and elucidate the interconnections between the dimensions of legitimacy and their broader implications for public libraries.

Initially, pilot coding was performed on three annual reports to verify the validity and appropriateness of the coding methods, using a tentative code list developed from the dimensions and elements found in the prior research (Yamagishi, Koizumi, and Larsen 2024). Following the pilot coding, the code list was revised to better reflect the appropriate expressions. This initial stage was crucial for testing the coding scheme in practice and identifying any necessary adjustments before applying the coding framework to the full dataset. In alignment with the construction of the code list, we also created a code manual. This manual includes code names and precise definitions to ensure consistent application of codes throughout the analysis, serving as a reference guide for researchers and ensuring reliability and clarity.

To further ensure the reliability of the coding process, between April and June 2024, we conducted double coding on the 24 annual reports. Both the first and second authors independently coded the reports using MAXQDA software. Coding was applied to sentences and images expressing the initiatives of NYPL or its librarians. The unit of coding was the sentence, and multiple codes were assigned when a sentence described initiatives corresponding to more than one code. The total number of codes is 3,266, with the first author applying 1,654 codes and the second author applying 1,612 codes.

The reliability of coding between coders was calculated using the kappa coefficient. Although Cohen’s Kappa (1960) is the most commonly used reliability measure in qualitative analyses, this study employed the Kappa coefficient developed by Kuckartz and Rädiker (2019), a modified version of Cohen’s method. The Kappa coefficient was calculated for each year using qualitative analysis software to confirm the reliability of the assigned codes (kappa = 0.76).

Iterative discussions were conducted in the final step to determine and confirm the dimensions and elements and extract typical cases and stories that represent these dimensions and elements using the assigned codes. In qualitative content analysis, quantitative indicators, such as the number of codes, do not necessarily indicate importance. In the empirical analysis undertaken for this study, even a single code representing a critical aspect of NYPL’s enactment of legitimacy was treated as an important case. The significance of these cases was determined during the analysis phase based on their meanings and contexts. For instance, basic services repeated annually were judged to be of lesser importance. By contrast, descriptions of services aimed at addressing social issues and challenges in the twenty-first century were used as core cases (RQ1).

2.3 Periodization in the Analysis of Relationships Between Dimensions

After elucidating the practices at NYPL through the qualitative content analysis described above, an analysis was conducted to clarify the relationships between the dimensions of legitimacy by dividing the period of study by historical events (RQ2).

In addition to internationally significant events, major social incidents in the United States were selected to examine how the legitimacy of public libraries functioned within society and their local communities during these periods. Priority was given to events that held substantial relevance to societal recognition and had a profound long-term impact on people’s lives from a historical perspective. Based on these criteria, the study focused on the following events: 1) advances in information technology at the beginning of the twenty-first century; 2) the September 11 terrorist attacks; 3) the financial crisis; 4) the expansion of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement; 5) the election of Donald Trump as president; 6) the COVID-19 pandemic; and 7) the rise in censorship targeting libraries.

The social significance and impact of each of these events are discussed in detail in the relevant sections. Documents used as case studies in the results were identified using software that analyzes the proximity of codes, and detailed descriptions were examined and refined through discussion.

3.1 Fostering Democracy

The elements included in fostering democracy are intellectual freedom, neutrality, the public sphere, social capital, and social justice. Recently, public libraries have increasingly assumed the role of fostering and maintaining democracy in local communities. Similarly, at NYPL this role permeates everything from its mission to its services.

Intellectual freedom is safeguarded by NYPL by providing access to all its collections (including digital collections) and information worldwide, thereby ensuring the right to knowledge and the freedom to read. For example, NYPL made books banned by censorship available for free via its e-book app, encouraging readers across the country to access them.

[…], we believe that we function as one of the cornerstones of a democratic society, where everyone is provided with free access to the information they seek. (New York Public Library 2007, 4)

Additionally, during September’s annual Banned Books Week, we spotlighted author and activist Toni Morrison’s legacy as an opponent of censorship and champion for libraries and open access to literature. Morrison’s values echo our own: all voices, stories, and perspectives deserve the opportunity to be heard. (New York Public Library 2022, 6)

Regarding neutrality, NYPL adopts a stance of active neutrality. Rather than refraining from taking a position on controversial debates (passive neutrality), the library holds and exhibits materials related to both sides of polarized debates equally. Additionally, when there are no opposing views, the inclusion of multilingual materials to ensure cultural diversity is considered part of neutrality. Given that NYPL holds multilingual materials across its four research libraries and 88 branches, the entire library system can be said to facilitate this form of neutrality. This commitment to the equal treatment of diverse perspectives is closely related to intellectual freedom, and striving for active neutrality helps maintain democracy by ensuring access to information.

In the lead-up to the 2016 presidential election, NYPL drew from its collections for a display featuring posters, lapel pins, bumper stickers, and other campaign ephemera illustrating the many facets of our country’s political past. (New York Public Library 2017, 34)

Last year, the Library was particularly invested in making sure all young patrons have equal access to the tools they need for school success. (New York Public Library 2018, 5)

The public sphere refers to an open space for public discussion on matters of common interest (Habermas 1989). Although not explicitly mentioned, this concept has taken root at NYPL. For example, by hosting events such as the Conservators Philanthropy Forum, NYPL provides opportunities for citizens to participate in discussions, thereby contributing to community solidarity. Simultaneously, one of the requirements of the public sphere is openness, and many of the library’s initiatives ensure that anyone can participate, thereby guaranteeing opportunities for public debate.

They welcome all, provide free books and services to help individuals and communities, and they offer a venue for people from all backgrounds to come together to discuss, debate, and learn from one another. (New York Public Library 2017, 2)

In October, nearly 200 scholars, leaders, and community members gathered at the Schomburg Center for “An American Dilemma for the 21st Century,” a daylong conference held in collaboration with the Social Science Research Council. (New York Public Library 2020, 35)

Social capital refers to strengthening connections within the local community and deepening the relationship between the community and the library. Social capital is defined as “the trust, networks, and norms that facilitate cooperation among individuals and enhance the invisible capital within communities” (Putnam 1995; Putnam, Robert, and Raffaella 1993). Specifically, NYPL champions the creation and strengthening of the city as part of its mission.

Libraries do and should change lives, serving not only as much-needed providers of books and services but also as dynamic, vibrant community hubs where creativity and ideas are born and then nurtured. (New York Public Library 2012, 4)

Indeed, a recent report from the Center for an Urban Future strongly argues that the city’s public libraries have become an increasingly important part of New York’s “human capital” system. (New York Public Library 2013, 4)

Elements corresponding to social justice include collaborating with prison libraries and extensive support for immigrants, with a focus on assisting the socially disadvantaged. These efforts are frequently highlighted in NYPL’s annual reports. Social justice, often expressed as social fairness, is maintained at NYPL by promoting social justice throughout the community.

The guide is free to those incarcerated in New York State prisons and local jails and to agencies that help to provide services to former inmates. (New York Public Library 2011, 9)

We released more high-profile reading lists throughout 2020. The Library’s Schomburg Center released its Black Liberation Reading List in June to mark its own 95th anniversary as well as worldwide uprisings demanding justice for Black lives. NYPL’s Essential Reads on Feminism coincided with the August centennial of the 19th Amendment – while our 2020 Election Reading List released in October encouraged voter engagement and awareness ahead of the election. (New York Public Library 2021a, 10)

The five elements of democracy have always been central to the legitimacy of public libraries, but in recent years, with the growing importance of intellectual freedom, the need for information literacy, which will be discussed later, has also increased.

3.2 Preservation of Heritage

The dimension of heritage consists of three elements: history, culture, and symbols. Similar to democracy, heritage is a crucial value rooted in the fundamental mission of public libraries. The NYPL not only expresses the ideals of preserving culture for future New Yorkers but also conducts activities such as digital archiving and events to foster local culture.

History refers to the archival function, centred on the preservation and organisation of materials. NYPL holds a vast collection of rare books and donated materials from around the world, and through preservation, restoration, and digitisation efforts it contributes to the preservation of history.

This has entailed the ongoing transfer of millions of bibliographical records of the Library’s holdings to an online format, and the digitization of important collections for electronic use. (New York Public Library 2001, 3)

With more than 500,000 public-domain books on offer, this digitize-on-demand program greatly expands access to Library collections, creates a digital legacy for future users of the same item, and generates a revenue stream to support Library operations. (New York Public Library 2011, 7)

Culture involves the collection, preservation, and provision of materials related to national and regional cultures, arts, and other areas, as well as the organization of cultural events. At NYPL, efforts are made to convey American culture to immigrants and to introduce the culture of minority communities, such as immigrants, to local residents.

The Schomburg Center presents HARLEM VIEWS/DIASPORAN VISIONS: THE NEW HARLEM RENAISSANCE PHOTOGRAPHERS, an exhibition of work by a group of 25 artists who share intimate views of daily life, festivals, celebrations, arts, culture, and social activism in and around Harlem. (New York Public Library 2012, 11)

The Library celebrated Hispanic Heritage Month by releasing a range of reading recommendations for kids, including books in Spanish, bilingual titles, and books in English featuring Hispanic and Latinx characters, from our circulating collections. (New York Public Library 2021b, 23)

Symbols indicates the role of public libraries as urban symbols and their recognition by citizens as safe spaces. In particular, the symbolic role of public libraries has become increasingly important during periods of social instability. NYPL features two lion statues at the entrance of its central library, which have become city symbols. Named Patience and Fortitude, these lions are dressed according to the season or social circumstances (e.g. COVID-19), and they are beloved by citizens. Furthermore, the architecture of NYPL itself, along with its ceiling paintings, holds historical value and serves as an important symbol for New Yorkers.

But the NYPL beats them all – awe-inspiring, intelligible, inviting, welcoming, helpful, tolerant, and cosmic in its holdings. (New York Public Library 2009, 24)

Today, these beloved icons continue to stand watch over the Stephen A. Schwarzman Building as ongoing symbols of our values. (New York Public Library 2021a, 6)

The three elements of the preservation of heritage have been inherent to public libraries since their birth. In the analyzed descriptions, it was assumed that libraries preserve and make history and diverse cultures available, with numerous services such as restoration and digitization described on this foundation. For example, the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, a specific branch and research library, can be considered a unique system in America that has preserved and publicized the history, culture, and symbols of various ethnicities and races, particularly in New York.

3.3 Guaranteeing Education

The dimension of education consists of two elements: lifelong learning, which broadly includes school and adult education; and reading literacy and information literacy, which serve as a safety net for immigrants and others.

Lifelong learning has been embedded within the American public education system since the twentieth century and has played a pivotal role in establishing the legitimacy of NYPL. Lifelong learning refers to the continuous, voluntary process of acquiring knowledge and skills throughout one’s life, aimed at personal fulfilment, self-development, and the improvement of one’s quality of life. This ongoing process encompasses various activities such as early childhood education, homework assistance, adult education programs, lectures, workshops, and classes. Public libraries serve as a crucial bridge between formal and informal education, playing an essential role in supporting individuals of all ages and fostering continuous learning beyond the confines of traditional schooling. Even in the twenty-first century, as societal needs have diversified, lifelong learning remains central to the services provided by libraries and continues to be widely recognized by the public as a legitimate and vital function.

The library inspires lifelong learning by creating and supporting more able learners, from the youngest patrons in the children’s rooms to the adults in the Deborah, Jonathan F.P., Samuel Priest, and Adam R. Rose Main Reading Room to those in their living rooms around the world connecting through the Internet. (New York Public Library 2010, 4)

These programs featured readings, songs, rhymes, and early literacy tips; introduced special STEAM-themed episodes; and were offered in five languages. (New York Public Library 2021a, 8)

Reading literacy and information literacy refer to elements related to literacy in reading and information. At NYPL, reading literacy is manifested in early childhood literacy and English language education programs for immigrants. Information literacy is represented by the provision of computers in public libraries and support for their use. Addressing the digital divide is also being recognized as part of the public library’s role. Information literacy has gained importance in the twenty-first century in close connection with the right to knowledge in a democracy.

These post-holiday sessions offer guidance about using tablet computers and e-readers to access NYPL’s nearly 22,000 e-books. (New York Public Library 2013, 13)

As the city’s population continues to grow and evolve, the Library is in the midst of a major expansion of two essential programs for adults–free English classes for immigrants and computer training classes for students of all levels, from Internet basics to those seeking coding knowledge. (New York Public Library 2015, 9)

The guarantee of education, based on the elements of lifelong learning and reading/information literacy, establishes NYPL as a prominent public institution that provides free services to facilitate communication within the community and support the resolution of challenges in civic life.

3.4 Economy

The economy dimension refers to the transparency and rational management of funding sources and explains how the library sufficiently contributes to society. In the case of NYPL, its status as a legitimate library deserving of external support is evidenced by its activities as a non-profit organisation, including its fundraising efforts and partnerships with other institutions, as well as the tangible economic support it receives. Additionally, because approximately half of NYPL’s operating budget comes from municipal tax revenue, one crucial activity of the management team is lobbying the City Council. By explaining NYPL’s contributions to the community and its support from citizens to policymakers and by engaging in initiatives of partnership with the city, NYPL gains the support of stakeholders which help establish its legitimacy.

As part of NYPL’s ‘Keep Libraries Open’ campaign, more than 136,000 loyal Library users wrote letters to their elected officials and donated $70,000 online. (New York Public Library 2011, 2)

A testament to the impact of this capital work, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Library (SNFL) is a hub of activity, programs, and patron engagement. And the Schomburg Center received a capital grant for renovations from New York Governor Kathy Hochul, recognizing its importance as a cultural touchstone for its Harlem neighborhood and beyond. (New York Public Library 2022, 12)

During the global economic crisis, when New York’s economy was struggling, funding for NYPL was reduced. However, as indicated above, NYPL demonstrated its economic legitimacy by organizing citizen petition drives, leading to the reversal of budget cuts.

3.5 Enhancing Librarianship

Librarianship is the foundational legitimacy that supports NYPL from within. Librarians, along with other library staff with specialized knowledge, collectively uphold NYPL. NYPL has hired experts in material management and provided training for librarians to adapt to new technologies. Enhancing librarianship is essential for maintaining and improving the quality of public libraries and serves as a core form of legitimacy for promoting engagement with citizens and communities.

The program encourages staff members to work in teams to address the daily issues and challenges that beset the Library–out of which have come real solutions in areas such as communication, service, collection development, and staff motivation. (New York Public Library 2007, 5)

We dramatically expanded our job search services by retraining our staff across all of our libraries, and expanding free access to computers and the Internet. (New York Public Library 2010, 4)

Descriptions related to staff training, such as those mentioned above, appear in annual reports. They are included because the development of new services in response to social changes requires librarians to acquire a higher level of expertise. As the mission of public libraries becomes more complex and their services more diversified, enhancing their librarians’ professional expertise as information specialists strengthens the legitimacy of their librarianship.

4.1 Advances in Information Technology in the Early Twenty-First Century

Information technology, including personal computers and the Internet, which emerged in the latter half of the twentieth century, began to proliferate in the early twenty-first century. This technological innovation initially sparked a debate about the redundancy of libraries. However, libraries soon adapted by incorporating information terminals, such as personal computers, and launching new online services. Guaranteeing access to information is a core principle of public libraries, and the emergence and advancement of new means posed a challenge to their legitimacy. Specific challenges included the collection and preservation of an increasing number of webpages and the digitization of paper media.

In the area of web content, the Library is continually expanding its archives through its Digital Library Program. This year, the NYPL website grew to 5,300 web pages and 32,800 images. The Library has embarked on two large-scale projects to digitize materials from its collections: one that will make accessible digital reproductions of 600,000 prints, photographs, and other images, and another that will include both visual and textual materials documenting the African American migration experience. (New York Public Library 2002a, 8)

This description represents a digital library construction plan closely related to the dimensions of heritage (history and culture) and librarianship. Furthermore, supporting the use of information equipment became a key aspect of the role of librarians and is strongly related to the dimension of education (information literacy). Additionally, NYPL addressed the digital divide by offering free computer classes to educate people about information technology and resources.

We have become increasingly concerned at the Library about the growing digital divide, the gap between technology ‘haves’ and ‘have nots.’ While the Internet is education’s new democratic frontier, entry is denied to those without computer access or skills. In a creative new program designed to bridge the divide, The New York Public Library initiated Click on @ the library on October 21, 2000. Click On addresses the problems of the digital divide through ongoing efforts to expand infrastructure and digital content, as well as to reach out to educate individuals about technology and resources available at the Library through free public computer classes. (New York Public Library 2002a, 8)

During this period, the term “digital librarianship” was also used, indicating the need for new librarianship to develop this series of services.

4.2 The 9/11 Terrorist Attacks

The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in America, particularly the attack on the World Trade Center in New York, aroused widespread fear and confusion across the nation. At NYPL, the 9/11 terrorist attacks were seen as a challenge to democracy. During this time, the legitimacy of public libraries was closely related to the dimensions of democracy (social justice) and heritage (symbols).

The vital role of public libraries could not have been clearer than in the aftermath of September 11. Initial print and electronic information resources, developed in response to the tragedy, were combined with a series of relevant programs, and immediately released to the public through pamphlets and a dedicated web page on the Library’s site. Among those programs and services were in-depth listings of job information and business assistance resources; information on special programs on coping with depression, anxiety, grief, and loss; read-aloud ‘Stories for Healing,’ geared toward children; and emergency information for New York City (New York Public Library 2002b, 4).

The description above reflects the strong demand for librarianship to develop new programs to address the situation.

4.3 The Financial Crisis

The 2008 financial crisis, which began with the collapse of major financial institutions in the United States, led to economic turmoil, including falling stock prices. The crisis affected not only private enterprises but also public institutions, leading to prolonged hardship and rising unemployment. Public libraries, which provide free services, saw a significant increase in usage, highlighting their role as a safety net during crises and affirming their legitimacy. The financial crisis led to a significant increase in NYPL users, many of whom sought job information or used computers to create documents as they faced personal challenges in a time of crisis.

The year 2009 has been an extraordinary time for The New York Public Library, highlighted by our dynamic new mission – to inspire lifelong learning, advance knowledge, and strengthen our communities. The Library inspires lifelong learning by creating and supporting more able learners [… ] The Library advances knowledge through its continuing commitment to collect and preserve materials that reflect New York’s global perspective, and to maintain free and open access to those materials. The Library is also an instrument for strengthening the communities we celebrate, honor, and bring together. (New York Public Library 2010, 4)

Based on this mission, the library emphasized new initiatives in response to the sudden needs that arose during this period, actively promoting community strengthening amid widening inequality. The increase in the number of reference questions was strongly related to the dimensions of democracy (social capital and social justice) and librarianship. At the same time, the economic dimension is also emphasized.

NYPL launches a successful ‘DON’T CLOSE THE BOOK ON LIBRARIES’ campaign in response to proposed City budget cuts. Library supporters take action, writing 130,000 letters, donating more than $144,000 online, calling elected officials, and raising their voices on the steps of City Hall. Mayor Bloomberg and the New York City Council restore $27 million, allowing all of the Library’s research centers and neighborhood libraries to remain open, and prevent hundreds of layoffs. (New York Public Library 2011, 11)

4.4 The Black Lives Matter Movement

In response to the nationwide spread of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement, public libraries expressed opposition to racial discrimination by offering collections and hosting events for public awareness. The dimensions most strongly related to this event were democracy (social justice) and heritage (history).

To mark the 95th anniversary of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and respond to uprisings across the globe demanding justice for Black lives, the Schomburg Center released its Black Liberation Reading List, featuring 95 titles that help celebrate and foster better understanding of the Black experience. (New York Public Library 2021a, 30)

NYPL has historically collected materials related to Black culture through the Schomburg Center. In 2015, NYPL held a BLM exhibition, showing its ongoing commitment even before the national movement gained momentum (New York Public Library 2016, 12).

4.5 The Election of Trump as President

Since the 2016 presidential election, American society has become increasingly divided, and NYPL has encouraged the use of its extensive collections to dispel misunderstandings caused by bias and fake news. While NYPL does not take a stance on the election itself, words like “divide” and “polarization” have become more common since 2017, and NYPL has asserted and communicated its stance on intellectual freedom and social justice as a bastion of democracy.

[…] the Library also released a special edition library card in late October 2018 featuring the message ‘Knowledge Is Power.’ During a season of polarizing public discourse, the limited-run card aimed to reinforce the Library’s values while attracting new audiences. […] Widespread press and social media attention helped bring in more than 2,300 online library card signups on the first day alone, more than four times the daily average. (New York Public Library 2019, 4)

This was done to reach the most vulnerable in society, specifically immigrants, older adults and low-income individuals. In particular, for immigrants, the library has expanded its programming for language learning and community participation, serving as an important institution that guarantees democracy.

4.6 The COVID-19 Pandemic

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, which spread worldwide in 2020, had a profound impact on libraries as physical spaces for access were restricted due to health concerns. Libraries that prided themselves on providing access to information and physical books were challenged to find new ways to serve the public. The pandemic represented a significant challenge to the legitimacy of public libraries, particularly in maintaining the trust of users when in-person services were limited. In response, NYPL expanded its digital services, including e-books, and launched a wide range of online programmes to continue serving its community.

The pandemic highlighted the need for libraries to adapt to new challenges while continuing to support education, access to information, and community engagement.

After our temporary physical closure in March due to COVID-19, NYPL expanded digital services like SimplyE, databases, and remote tutoring to support patrons. (New York Public Library 2021a, 20)

This period saw a deepening of the relationships between the dimensions of democracy (public sphere), education (information literacy), and librarianship as NYPL worked to maintain relevance and support its users through digital means.

4.7 The Rise in Censorship Targeting Libraries

The 2021 Virginia gubernatorial election, in which the Republican candidate centered the campaign on parental rights in children’s education, has led to an increase in demands for censorship in schools and public libraries. The number of censorship requests regarding library materials in 2022 is the highest since data collection began (American Library Association 2023). Book bans and censorship are the actions most strongly opposed by libraries, and the American library community has issued statements and other forms of protest in response. Negative demands directed at libraries can impact their support, making it essential to respond in a manner consistent with library principles. The expansion of censorship since 2022 represents a significant event for the library community. The NYPL has not only developed programs to systematically oppose book bans and censorship but has also led various initiatives across the United States.

In 2023 across the country, book banning efforts continued to rise at record-breaking levels – and public libraries were increasingly being targeted. As the largest public library system in the U.S. – with a mission to make knowledge freely available to all – NYPL mounted a national initiative called Books for All to take a stand against censorship. Launched during Banned Books Week in October 2023 and lasting through the school year, the initiative particularly centered around teens, who have been impacted most by book bans. Key offerings included a teen banned book club – featuring free, nationwide access to frequently challenged young adult titles via our e-reader app SimplyE – as well as a national teen writing contest inviting applicants to share why the freedom to read is important to them. NYPL also partnered with the American Library Association to reach communities across the country – further encouraging the free and open exchange of ideas for everyone. (New York Public Library 2023, 6)

The dimensions of public library legitimacy at NYPL during this period were democracy (intellectual freedom and neutrality) and education (lifelong learning). These dimensions are particularly evident in the way NYPL leads initiatives that ensure children’s freedom to read, with outreach efforts extending to school education.