Dimensions of the Ukrainian War in British Press: A Topic Modeling Approach
-
Çağla Ediz
,
İsmail Ediz
Abstract
Media news around the world contains powerful signals for understanding governments’ thoughts and public reactions to domestic or foreign conflicts. Although the development of information technologies makes it possible to evaluate this big data in digital media and see perspectives on international issues, few studies have been conducted on news media. This article aims to investigate the dimensions in the British press surrounding the Ukraine War, which began on February 24, 2022. In this context, we examine 14,316 news articles covering the war in Ukraine from The Guardian, The Daily Mail, and The Times over the first 16 months using the LDA method, followed by advanced analyses. Through statistical analysis, the frequencies of the dimensions appearing in the news were compared and their intersections were examined. Additionally, thematic differences in the coverage of the Ukraine War were observed among British newspapers with different political tendencies. This study is one of the first to reveal the main dimensions of the war through newspaper coverage, aiming to understand the dimensions of the conflict affecting a country that is not directly involved in the war but aligned with one side.
1 Introduction
Martin Libicki (1995) stated that information warfare can be categorized into seven different classes, one of which involves the use of information against the human mind. This category represents a psychological form of information warfare aimed at motivating or demoralizing soldiers and influencing the civilian population (Robinson et al. 2015). In this context, the media can shape the attitudes of readers and actors toward conflicts by determining what will be presented (Butler 2005). Thus, it can be a serious driving force for governments through public opinion by influencing foreign policy decisions (Ojala and Pantti 2017). Media can be a guide in seeing the general attitudes of states in international relations (Guan and Lawi 2024).
Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 was an indication that it was still a significant threat to the EU. Annexation created a déjà vu effect among European states. Some historical reflexes were resurrected, and Western actors reacted to Russia’s policies at various levels whenever possible. The militarily strong United Kingdom (UK) and economically strong Germany are vital for Europe to cope with a threatening and resurgent Russia (Driedger 2021). While the Finland and Germany acted restrainedly in implementing EU sanctions, Sweden and the UK, less dependent on Russian energy and geographically far from Russia, applied sanctions more actively (Ojala and Pantti 2017). The reaction of the UK, which entered into a historical and long-term rivalry with Russia called the “Great Game” in the past, was more apparent than its other European allies. British Prime Minister Theresa May, who harshly claimed Russia was a threat to Europe in 2018, almost emphasized Britain’s historical codes by positioning Russia on the enemy front. In this sense, UK public opinion to what happened in Ukraine is much more evident than that of other European states and, therefore, worth examining. Even though the UK left the EU it supported Ukraine’s entry into the EU and NATO, provided comprehensive assistance to the Ukrainian armed forces against Russia, and established military-political alliances with Ukraine (Hrubinko and Buhlai 2022). In parallel with these policies, from the beginning, the war was at the forefront of the UK media with its economic, political, and social effects. Accordingly, this article focuses on the central issues about the Ukraine War covered in the UK media. In the study, we evaluated three British newspapers with different political tendencies. These are Daily Mail, The Guardian, and The Times. Looking at the political tendencies of the three newspapers, Daily Mail, which supports Brexit, has a conservative view and includes popular culture content. In contrast, The Guardian, which supports staying in the EU, has a center-left liberal view and uses language that appeals to a more cognitive perception (Demata, et al. 2020; Kitis and Milapedes 1997). Conversely, the Times has a conservative and center-right publishing policy (Carvalho and Burgess 2005).
The main research questions of the study are:
RQ1.
What are the most mentioned dimensions in the British news containing the Ukrainian War?
RQ2.
What are the intersections of these dimensions with each other?
RQ3.
Are there differences between the dimensions given importance in British newspapers with different political tendencies?
Conducting topic modeling studies over a wide time period and with a large number of media news articles involves some difficulties, and therefore the number of such studies is small. These challenges are mainly:
Since there is no standard interface structure in the web interfaces of different newspapers, different algorithms are required to automatically download large amounts of news content from each of them.
News content is longer than social media posts, making it more difficult to find topics in news media compared to social media.
Topic modeling results are often not consistent and sufficient (Khairova et al. 2024). Extra analyses are needed to find meaningful results.
News is prepared more systematically than social media posts, is read by more people, and has the power to reveal or influence the preferences of the masses. Therefore, examining the news published in large numbers and over a wide period of time on a subject can provide comprehensive information about that subject. Based on this idea, in this study, we aim to reveal the main dimensions of the Ukrainian War by examining the British press. While evaluating the Ukrainian War from the perspective of a country party to the conflict we also explain our methodological approach in detail so that researchers can benefit from it in future studies. In the next section, we examine the literature review on the themes of the Ukraine War. Then, we explain the methods used in our article, followed by a section in which we present our findings. Finally, we evaluate our findings.
2 Literature Review
All parties taking a position in the Ukraine War, which significantly affects global balances, are aware of the importance of the media and see it as a powerful tool for rallying supporters. In a study examining articles in Russian official media between January 1 and April 5, 2022, news about the USA financing studies on biological weapons in Ukraine and Russia’s efforts to purify Ukraine from Nazis were among the prominent topics (Hanley et al. 2023). In Russian official media, Ukraine is portrayed as the aggressor seeking geopolitical and economic power and unwilling to compromise. In contrast, Russia is depicted as a nation promoting pluralistic ideas against American imperialism (Grassia et al. 2022). Russian newspapers create the perception that Russia is at war with the West and is trying to save Ukrainians from losing their true identity (Brusylovska and Maksymenko 2023).
On the other hand, after recovering in the post-Cold War era, Moscow returned to its expansion policy and became a threat to Western interests again. European peoples perceived the declaration of war against Ukraine, which was considering EU and NATO membership, as a threat to them (Delanty 2023). These thoughts were also reflected in the anti-Russian Western media. While examining how the Western European mainstream media framed the Ukraine War during the first phase of the conflict, February 2014 and February 2015, they presented Ukrainian actors, including political leaders, police, demonstrators, and soldiers, positively in almost all the news. Conversely, Russian actors were depicted as aggressive and threatening (Fengler et al. 2020). An evaluation of newspaper headlines over a four month period (March 2022 – June 2022) about the Ukraine War in five Western Balkan countries showed that most of the headlines were sensational, with most newspapers taking a stance in favor of Ukraine (Selimi 2023).
In order to see the dimensions of the Ukrainian War, it is useful to examine topic analyses regarding the Ukrainian War in the literature first. In their study, Sadeek and Hanaoka examined 673 news articles containing “supply chain” bi-grams with LDA topic modeling using news from the BBC, Asian Times, Reuters, and Nikkei Asia. As a result, they observed that “food prices,” “oil prices,” and “energy supply” were frequent words in the news during the War (Sadeek and Hanaoka 2023). In the topic modeling study of the Ukrainian war in Bangladesh newspapers based on the Daily Star and New Age newspapers, military confrontations/clashes were found to be the first topic and global/world leaders were found to be the second topic (Nath et al. 2024). Looking at bibliometric studies related with Ukraine War, Ahlawat et al. found the research topics to be “business,” “equity markets,” “climate change,” “food security,” “energy security,” “public health,” and “global implication of war” (Ahlawat et al. 2022). In another bibliometric study, food, global energy, and security came to the fore in publications about the Ukrainian War (Ostapenko et al. 2023).
The Ukrainian War was frequently featured on social media, especially in the early days of the conflict. In a study based on data obtained from Telegram, Maathuis and Kerkhof examined the correspondences of Ukrainians via Telegram during the first nine and a half weeks of the war, dividing them into three intervals. In the first interval they included topics such as the advance of the Russian troops, attacks around Kyiv, and the capture of the Chernobyl Power Plant. In the second interval, words such as NATO and missile came to the fore. The third interval included strikes, injuries, and gas shortages (Maathuis and Kerkhof 2023).
In another study based on social media data about the Ukrainian War, which examined tweets from different countries, the most important topics were “Oil gas,” “Need Weapon,” “Trump Putin,” “War Putin,” “Putin Russia,” “War Criminal,” and “War Crime” (Aslan 2023). Similarly, another analysis based on tweets from the UK found common themes with US tweets including “invasion,” “support for the Ukrainian people,” “fundraising,” and “woman fighters.” However, UK tweets also uniquely addressed “gas prices” and “sanctions” (Sazzed 2022).
Although many academics discuss the Ukrainian War from various perspectives, comprehensive studies that evaluate the prominent dimensions of the war with a holistic approach are insufficient. When classical LDA analyses are applied in topic modeling, common issues arise, such as excluding highly relevant keywords and including semantically irrelevant words. These shortcomings often result in insufficient or inconsistent outcomes (Khairova et al. 2024). Further analyses are needed to address these inconsistencies and achieve more understandable results.
We aimed to determine the dimensions of the war by evaluating the British press, which has shown intense interest in the conflict since its beginning. Since newspapers reflect the perspectives of the public and governments (Wang et al. 2020), conducting intensity analyses of the war dimensions in newspapers can reveal the concerns and priorities of states and the public. To achieve this, we used an advanced methodology to determine the macro-scale equivalents of the topics obtained through LDA analysis and the new keywords representing these dimensions using corpus word counts.
3 Methodology
3.1 Data and Text Preprocessing
We searched for news about “Ukraine” in Daily Mail, The Guardian, and The Times, and recorded the title, link, newspaper, news contents, and date information for 14,316 news items. The date range selected for the search is February 24, 2022, and June 31, 2023. The number of news we recorded from Daily Mail, The Guardian, and The Times newspapers are 3,499, 9,603, and 1,214, respectively (Figure 1).
Research methodology.
Since the websites and archiving systems of the relevant newspapers had different web infrastructures, we had to use different methods to access news data. We used the API first to download “webTitle,” “webURL,” “webPublicationDate” records of news items containing “Ukraine” from The Guardian. Afterwards, we used the beautiful soap library in Python to get news contents. We then downloaded news contents containing “Ukraine” from The Times using the Python selenium, while in Daily Mail, we first filtered the keywords “Ukraine,” “Russia,” and “Russia-Ukraine Conflict” from the web and used the Python selenium library to download the news. Next, we uniformed date formats and combined three datasets. After lowercase conversion, we removed stopwords, punctuation marks, and emotion in news content using nltk, pandas, and sklearn. We included the lemmatizing process, turning words into root words for more consistent results in topic modeling (Hagen 2018).
3.2 LDA and Advanced Analysis
It is helpful to identify the topics in the document contents to give analysts an idea about the text and thus to facilitate access to information (Korenčić et al. 2021). As a widely used topic-finding method since its introduction in 2003, LDA looks at the predominant usage of words among a series of documents and determines the topic distribution according to the words of the documents by using the Bayesian Algorithm (Blei et al. 2003). LDA performs exceptionally well on short texts such as social media posts or comments, newspapers, magazines, and Wikipedia articles (Michel et al. 2011; Sbalchiero and Eder 2020). In the first part, we applied LDA to 14,316 pre-processed news contents. The number of topics (K) in LDA is one of the most critical parameters when running the model. The K value should be large enough not to bring together too many unrelated topics and small enough to be meaningful (Quinn et al. 2010). In this study the K value was 30, which is preferred in some previous studies (Abd-Alrazaq et al. 2020; Pouriyeh al. 2019). As a result of 10 iterations, we reached the topic word distributions in Appendix 1. Although the probabilistic approach is frequently used with LDA to determine the final number of topics, these approaches may be weak in reaching the goal (Chang et al. 2009). Selecting approaches based on expert interpretation rather than methods such as perplexity can lead to better results, albeit at the cost of requiring more effort and time (Baumer et al. 2017). Hence, we utilized a methodology that combines expert opinions with text mining to identify distinctive words indicating the topics discussed in the text.
The LDA results (Appendix 1), frequencies of unigrams, and bigrams of the news content corpus can be used to reveal the main words and terms (Abd-Alrazaq et al. 2020; Buenano-Fernandez et al. 2020). Within a systematic approach, we decided on the main dimensions and the distinctive strings. First, we evaluated LDA results to find the main dimensions. Topics obtained from LDA, such as football, British elections, and Eurovision, were eliminated due to their lower frequency than others. Secondly, to determine the distinctive strings, we used LDA words with some enhancements. Homophone LDA words were transformed into bigrams by assessing their usage in context (e.g., “power plant” instead of “plant” and “interest rate” instead of “rate”). Synonyms of the LDA words were also added to distinctive strings. Finally, some distinctive strings could be contained within another word with a different meaning. We changed these types of words (e.g., crime and Crimea) by adding a space at the beginning or end. The authors checked the correctness of the dimensions and the distinctive strings by randomly selecting from each distinctive strings until they found no problems.
4 Results
4.1 RQ1. What are the Most Mentioned Dimensions in the British News Containing the Ukrainian War?
In our initial evaluation of the British press analysis (LDA topics and keywords, word frequencies, expert evaluations), we identified the macro-level dimensions of the war and their distinctive strings. When calculating the frequencies of dimension-distinguishing strings in the news, the dimensions of the Ukrainian War were ranked from most to least frequent as follows: politicians, economy, crime, weapons, energy crisis, mobility, food crisis, nuclear fear, and climate change (Table 1).
Dimensions of the Ukraine War.
| Distinctive Strings of Dimensions | n (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| Politicians | [‘biden’, ‘boris’, ‘donald’, ‘joe’, ‘macron’, ‘minister’, ‘president’, ‘putin’, ‘trump’, ‘zelensk’] | 11,008 (76.9 %) |
| Economy | [‘bank’, ‘bill’, ‘cost’, ‘fee’, ‘market’, ‘price’, ‘tax’, ‘asset’, ‘crisis’, ‘economic’, ‘economy’, ‘financial’, ‘fund’, ‘inflation’, ‘interest rate’, ‘investment’, ‘money’] | 9,957 (69.6 %) |
| Crime | [‘court’, ‘crime’, ‘rape’, ‘arrest’, ‘crimes’, ‘criminal’, ‘evidence’, ‘genocide’, ‘judge’, ‘justice’, ‘prison’, ‘prisoner’, ‘prosecutor’, ‘victim’] | 6,148 (42.9 %) |
| Weapon | [‘drone’, ‘jet’, ‘tank’, ‘weapon’, ‘missile’] | 5,498 (38.4 %) |
| Energy crisis | [‘coal’, ‘energy’, ‘fossil fuel’, ‘gas price’, ‘gas supply’, ‘natural gas’, ‘oil gas’, ‘petrol’, ‘pipeline’, ‘power plant’, ‘renewable’, ‘renewable energy’, ‘russian gas’] | 4,678 (32.7 %) |
| Mobility | [‘mobility’, ‘exodus’, ‘migrat’, ‘passenger’, ‘refugee’, ‘transport’, ‘travel’] | 4,442 (31.0 %) |
| Food crisis | [‘grain’, ‘rice’, ‘crop’, ‘farmer’, ‘fertiliser’, ‘fish’, ‘food’, ‘hunger’, ‘tobacco’, ‘wheat’] | 3,399 (23.7 %) |
| Nuclear fear | [‘atomic’, ‘disarmament’, ‘hiroshima’, ‘nuclear’, ‘reactor’] | 2,213 (15.5 %) |
| Climate change | [‘carbon’, ‘climate’, ‘emission’, ‘greenhouse gas’, ‘renewable energy’] | 1,947 (13.6 %) |
4.1.1 Dimension 1. Politicians
Most of the news about Ukraine in the British press was about politicians. War is identified with leaders. Not surprisingly, politicians are mostly mentioned in war news because political leaders make the decisions about war, manage the war, and sometimes play a supporting or mediating role on one side. When we look at the news content, it can be seen that the leaders who led the war and the politicians who are in powerful positions and take sides in the war are frequently featured in the news. The most mentioned leader regarding the war is Putin, who was mentioned in 6,637 of 14,316 news content.
4.1.2 Dimension 2. Economy
When Russia launched a full-scale invasion on February 24, 2022, the most pessimistic scenarios for the next 3–5 years emerged, affecting not only the economies of Ukraine, Europe, and Central Asia but also the global economy as a whole (Shubalyi and Gordiichuk 2022). Wars negatively affect global economic trends with the factors they bring, such as inflation, extreme poverty, food insecurity, and environmental degradation. In this case, global-scale crises may arise, with effects spreading from the crisis center to the surrounding areas, especially the warring states. Under the economy heading, the British press partly focused on the negatively affected economies of the two warring states. During the occupation, damaged buildings, roads, and public utilities caused billions of weekly losses (Rose and Hannam 2022). By the end of the first year, approximately one-fifth of Ukraine’s population had emigrated, energy infrastructure was destroyed, and agricultural productivity suffered seriously. Ukraine experienced the most significant economic collapse in its history, losing 30 % of its economic production (Khan 2023).
The Ukraine War affected the warring states and the people of other states. The British press also covered the problems of other European countries negatively affected by the War. Nearly 80 % of 6,000 people surveyed in France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Poland, and the United Kingdom said they had to cut back on travel (62 %) or heat (47 %) due to high energy prices, high inflation, and Ukraine war (Henley 2022). Similarly, economic experts in the UK consider high global energy and fuel prices, exacerbated by supply disruptions due to War, to be one of the leading causes of inflation. Andrew Bailey, Governor of the Bank of England, also thought that inflation in England was higher than in many developed countries and would last longer than expected with the rise in oil and gas prices (Partington and Inman 2022). In line with these expectations, members of the Bank of England’s interest-setting committee unanimously increased interest rates in the face of inflation, which reached 9 percent, the highest level in the last 40 years (Nachiappan 2022).
The British press blamed Moscow, which it saw as the cause of the War, and economic sanctions against Russia were frequently on the agenda. The USA froze bank accounts belonging to Russians, issued an arrest warrant for Putin, and seized financial assets belonging to Putin supporters (Steel 2023). Western countries followed the US decisions and imposed sanctions on Russian exports (Steel 2023). The UK Foreign Office stated that the UK government imposed sanctions on more than 1,000 individuals and more than 100 organizations earlier in the War after Russia invaded Ukraine (Walker 2022). Among them is Roman Abramovich, who was banned from entering England, ending his 20-year ownership of Chelsea F.C. (Wilcock 2022). On the other hand, the UK’s military and economic support to Ukraine, including equipment such as armored vehicles and anti-tank missiles, reached £1.3 billion in June 2022 (Stewart and Sabbagh 2022).
4.1.3 Dimension 3. Crime
War crime is a prevalent dimension in the war. Warring states have accused each other of committing different war crimes during the war. News such as the killing of young people, the elderly, and children, the rape of women, the poisoning of anti-Putin figures, and the imprisonment of journalists were widely reported in the press. In March 2022, the Ukrainian side claimed that thousands of people evacuated from shelters were sent against their will to work unpaid in economically problematic Russian cities (Ball 2022). In April 2022, Ukrainian authorities claimed that Russia was committing genocide, saying that the bodies of 410 civilians, who were shot at close range with their hands tied behind their backs, were mass exhumed in the towns where the Russians retreated. Also, drone footage released by the Ukrainian Ministry of Defense showed that white phosphorus, which burns human flesh profoundly and can have fatal consequences if it enters the bloodstream, was dropped on unoccupied Bakhmut regions, turning the streets into a blazing inferno (Oliver 2023).
During the war, Russia also claimed that Ukraine committed war crimes. In April 2023, Amnesty International investigated allegations that Ukraine was illegally endangering its citizens by stationing armed troops inside civilian regions (Beaumont 2023). Another incident Russians blamed Ukraine for was the collapse of the Kakhovka Dam, seized by Russia in June 2023. The Russians accused Kyiv of wanting to block fresh water from coming here to Crimea, while Ukraine evacuated thousands of people from nearby damaged areas and stated that they did this to slow down the counter-attack that the Russians expected from Ukraine (Guardian Staff 2023). Another striking and confusing event occurred in September 2022 when the pipeline transporting gas from Russia to Germany was bombed. After the bombing, Zelensky stated that Ukraine was not related to such an event, while just before Russia invaded Ukraine, U.S. President Joe Biden stated that there would be no Nord Stream 2 in the event of such an invasion. When a US journalist wrote that the USA burst the pipes, Joe Biden’s words were remembered, but the USA did not accept this claim (Sabbagh et al. 2023).
4.1.4 Dimension 4. Weapon
A significant part of the weapon news is related to the arms supply of Western states to Ukraine. Early in the war, Zelensky demanded more advanced weapons from the United States (Goodin 2022b). In this direction, NATO allies and the USA provided coordinated support with weapons such as air defense systems, tanks, mine-clearing equipment, and infantry fighting vehicles (Menon and DePetris 2023). Seeing these supports as insufficient, Zelensky also requested the creation of a sky shield for all of Europe, starting from Ukraine (O’Carroll 2023).
On the other hand, Russia was receiving weapons from Iran, who also provided training and technical consultancy services to Russian pilots. Both the EU and the UK imposed some sanctions on Iran due to the widespread use of these aircraft on civilians in Ukraine (Borger and Sabbagh 2022).
Although USA and the West ended their cooperation with Russia, Irish-made components were found in the Orlan-10 drone used to detect targets to be hit by the Russians in Ukraine. Similarly, the Russian Armed Forces used Irish-made semiconductors for rockets and missiles. It was stated that intermediary organizations were used when purchasing such materials and it was not possible to identify the end user. The Russians could bring technical materials from America and Europe that they could not produce through illegal networks (Mooney 2023).
4.1.5 Dimension 5. Energy Crisis
Dependence on Russian energy became a severe problem for Western states by the War. Prime Minister Boris Johnson called for his country to focus on smaller nuclear power plants, renewable energy sources, and the UK’s offshore oil and natural gas reserves (Howes, Steart, and Hookham 2022). Johnson also traveled to other countries that supply energy and defense from Russia, such as India, to offer alternative options (Heffer 2022). However, Viktor Orban, the Prime Minister of Hungary, which is entirely dependent on Russian oil, likened the desire of EU member states to ban Russian oil, just like the UK, to a nuclear bomb dropped on his country’s economy. Another debate caused by the energy crisis is coal power. In the UK, due to the increasing energy costs, the government was criticized for closing coal power stations under the pressure of the green lobby without creating alternatives and working very little to establish new ones. All of this was done while the existing nuclear power plants were about to end their lifespan (Glover 2022).
At the beginning of the War energy played a critical role, and the suspicious deaths of many executives of Russia’s major energy companies and the business people they were associated with seemed unusual (Stewart 2022). Meanwhile, a debate began on the payment method of the states that still procured energy from Russia. Putin’s spokesman, Dmitry Peskov, stated that Bulgaria and Poland rejected Russia’s demands to pay natural gas fees in rubles and stopped the gas supply to both countries. Peskov threatened that the taps could be turned off if other European customers refused to pay in rubles when the next payment was due. Afterward, Bloomberg reported that the four major gas trading companies submitted to Russia’s demand and agreed to pay in rubles (Poulter et al. 2022). As a result of this move, the value of the Russian Ruble rose to the pre-war level (Lewis 2022). With all these developments, the Russian economy recovered approximately eight months after the start of the War and the Central Bank had to revise its forecasts. Two main reasons for this were that Russia created one of the world’s most substantial gold and foreign currency reserves and that India and China became willing to buy Russian energy due to sanctions increasing energy prices (Grylls et al. 2022). Meanwhile, the increase in oil prices due to the Ukraine war tripled BP’s profits in the year’s second quarter, reaching approximately £7 billion (Jolly 2022).
4.1.6 Dimension 6. Mobility
The topic covered the mobility of a wide variety of elements, including people, food, missiles, military personnel, and leaders. One of the most prominent news items in this topic was about the Ukrainian people who were forced to migrate due to the war. In one year, 8 million Ukrainians had to relocate within Ukraine, and 8 million Ukrainians had to migrate to other European countries (Nicol 2023). During this period, England took measures to facilitate the entry of immigrants into the country. On the other hand, to ensure more Ukrainians could join their relatives in the UK, the UK Home Office increased weekly visa processing appointments from 500 to 6,000 and the length of time people could stay in the UK from one to three years (Gentleman and Taylor 2022). The UK also aimed to balance facilitating migration with preventing uncontrolled processes. Early in the conflict, the UK Government prevented 600 Ukrainian refugees, primarily women and children, from staying with individuals they had connected with on social platforms like Facebook because some of the potential hosts had criminal records or predatory behaviour. As a temporary measure, these individuals were accommodated in hotels. The Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities urged the Ministry of Internal Affairs to conduct thorough checks on every adult seeking to host refugees before issuing visas (Fazackerley 2022).
On the other hand, the UK imposed travel bans on Russian supporters. In this context, Russian airlines and planes owned or operated by people affiliated with Russia were banned from landing in the UK, and private jets of Russian supporters were seized (Taylor 2022). One of the consequences of the war was that Russia-based capital also had to relocate, either compulsorily or voluntarily.
Meanwhile, an increasing number of Russian millionaires were leaving Russia (Neate 2022a). It was not just people who left Russia; many Western companies also voluntarily restricted or closed their activities in the country (Sauer 2022). Many brands, such as Dior, Zara, Starbucks, Coca-Cola, and McDonald’s, withdrew from Russia shortly after Russia invaded Ukraine (Parashar 2023).
4.1.7 Dimension 7. Food Crisis
The most common news is for this dimension about wheat. Russia and Ukraine account for approximately 25 % and 16 % of the world’s wheat and corn exports (Goodin 2022a). By closing the Port of Odesa, Russia disrupted grain shipments in this area, and Ukraine could ship grain through the Danube ports with a limited capacity (Boffey and Partridge 2022). Kynan Massey, managing director of Massey Feeds, which sells livestock feed to more than 4,000 farms in the UK, said wheat shortages caused by the Ukraine war and dry weather in Europe had pushed prices to record levels, and farmers could not afford the production costs to produce eggs (Mclaughlin 2022). As a result of intense diplomacy, the agreement on opening the ports was signed in Istanbul by Ukraine and Russia on July 22, 2022, in the presence of Turkey and the UN secretary-general (Berkhead 2022).
In addition to the masses who suffered from the rise in food prices, some turned the crisis into an opportunity. The story of the Cargill family was one of them. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine increased global food prices which contributed to three members of the Cargill family, one of the world’s largest food companies, becoming among the 500 wealthiest people in the world (Neate 2022b).
4.1.8 Dimension 8. Nuclear Fear
One of the most frequently discussed issues regarding Russia’s violations of international law is the issue of nuclear weapons. In the 1994 Budapest Agreement, Russia, the USA, and the UK provided assurances that they would safeguard Ukraine’s political and territorial integrity. However, this commitment was contingent on Ukraine relinquishing all its remaining nuclear weapons from the Soviet Union (Tonkin 2022). Russia’s violation of this agreement caused a debate on the contract requirements between the parties (Euronews 2022).
Russia frequently used its nuclear power as a threat against the West. Russia was threatening Europe that missiles supplied to Ukraine would lead to a nuclear apocalypse that would destroy all of Europe (Tonkin 2022). Nuclear facilities were as worrying as nuclear weapons. For instance, Europe’s largest nuclear power plant, which came under Russian control in March 2022, was damaged many times throughout the war. Ukraine and Russia blamed each other for the bombing. Russian officials claimed that if the power plant were damaged, radioactive material would rain down on Poland, Slovakia, and Germany. Russia also threatened to close the facility providing electricity to Europe and equipped the facility with heavy weapons (Tucker and Parfitt 2022). Similarly, it was claimed that Russia converted the Zaporizhzhia power plant, which was seized by Russian forces at the beginning of March, into a military base (Koshiw and Rankin 2022).
4.1.9 Dimension 9. Climate Change
In addition to issues of high politics, the British press included news and analysis on issues that would be evaluated within a more liberal framework, such as climate. World Bank climate expert Rachel Kyte stated that EU countries’ commitment to reach net-zero emissions by 2050 should not be postponed due to the Ukraine War (Inman et al. 2022): every step towards clean energy would reduce Russia’s economic impact on EU countries and the demand for Russia’s oil would disappear once the net zero target is reached in 2050. Aiming to reduce dependence on Russian gas and reduce the use of CO2-emitting fossil fuels, nine European countries have pledged to increase the capacity of offshore wind farms in the North Sea to eight times the current levels by 2050 (Henley 2023). However, the West had to burn more coal to cope with rising gas prices due to the war in Ukraine, causing carbon emissions to increase by 1 percent in a year, reaching a record level. This situation was a significant handicap for the Paris Agreement, which aimed to keep warming below 2 °C (Vaughan 2023).
Looking at the time series of the news about the War in Ukraine in the British press (Figure 2), it can be said that at the beginning of the War in Ukraine, the number of news items for almost every dimension was high at beginning. As time passed, the interest had a decreasing trend. On the other hand, the number of news items on climate and nuclear remained almost stable.
Number of news between March 2022 and June 2023.
4.2 RQ2. What are the Intersections of These Dimensions with Each Other?
In order to see the intersection of the dimensions covered in the Ukrainian War news, we created a binary intersection matrix of the dimensions (Table 2). The values on the diagonal in Table 2 represent the number of news items related to each dimension of the Ukraine War, along with the percentage of these items relative to the total number of news items. The values outside the diagonal show the number of news items in which the two news dimensions in the row and column names are mentioned together and their percentages within the total number of news items. For example, the news containing distinctive strings related to both weapons and nuclear dimensions constitute 10.9 % of all news, and the number of these news items is 1,559.
Intersection rates (numbers) of news with two dimensions.
| Politicians | Economy | Crime | Weapon | Energy | Mobility | Food | Nuclear | Climate | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Politicians | 76.9 % (11,008) | ||||||||
| Economy | 54.3 % (7,774) | 69.6 % (9,957) | |||||||
| Crime | 36.1 % (5,162) | 30.3 % (4,333) | 42.9 % (6,148) | ||||||
| Weapon | 34.5 % (4,940) | 24.7 % (3,538) | 18.4 % (2,640) | 38.4 % (5,498) | |||||
| Energy | 25.8 % (3,689) | 29.2 % (4,176) | 13.1 % (1,874) | 11.9 % (1,699) | 32.7 % (4,678) | ||||
| Mobility | 24.2 % (3,460) | 23.8 % (3,408) | 14.8 % (2,120) | 12.0 % (1,714) | 10.4 % (1,491) | 31.0 % (4,442) | |||
| Food | 17.8 % (2,550) | 19.8 % (2,834) | 10.9 % (1,560) | 9.1 % (1,304) | 11.1 % (1,593) | 9.5 % (1,366) | 23.7 % (3,399) | ||
| Nuclear | 14.5 % (2,071) | 11.3 % (1,623) | 7.1 % (1,014) | 10.9 % (1,559) | 7.6 % (1,088) | 4.5 % (651) | 3.5 % (507) | 15.5 % (2,213) | |
| Climate | 10.8 % (1,544) | 13.1 % (1,879) | 6.1 % (8,70) | 3.4 % (491) | 9.4 % (1,350) | 4.9 % (701) | 4.9 % (707) | 2.9 % (411) | 13.6 % (1,947) |
The most discussed dimensions are politicians and the economy in the Ukranian War news. The politicians dimension is the dimension where the economy, crime, weapons, mobility, and nuclear dimensions intersect the most, while the economy dimension is the dimension where the politicians, energy, food, and climate dimensions intersect the most. Most news about the Ukraine War has an aspect related to the economy. For example, the war budget allocated to support Ukraine, along with the food and energy shortages resulting from the war, has negatively impacted the UK economy.
The third-highest intersection for most dimensions, except for food, nuclear, and climate dimensions, is with crime. Since the Ukrainian War is a war that includes civilian casualties and injuries, human rights violations, damage to public infrastructures and ecosystems, and forced refugee movements, it is normal for the crime dimension to intersect frequently with other dimensions.
On the other hand, for food and climate, the third-highest intersection is energy, whereas for nuclear it is weapons. One of the reasons why food and energy frequently intersect is that the rising cost of energy used in food production and distribution also affects food costs. The restrictions on grain supplies from Ukraine and Russia, as well as oil from Russia, have also impacted the UK. Despite the desire to switch to renewable energy sources with lower carbon emissions due to rising oil prices, the short-term shift to alternatives like coal consumption raised concerns about the climate crisis. In this context, energy and climate crisis were frequently discussed together. On the other hand, some reasons nuclear and weapons were often discussed together were the concern about the potential use of nuclear weapons and the possibility of nuclear facilities being targeted by weapons.
4.3 RQ3. Are There Differences Between the Dimensions Given Importance in British Newspapers with Different Political Tendencies?
The most frequently mentioned dimensions in Daily Mail and The Times are politicians and the economy, respectively (Table 3). Daily Mail mentions politicians in nearly four out of every five news articles about the War in Ukraine (79.9 %), while in The Times this ratio is 76.1 %. This can be expected given the critical role political leaders play in making war-related decisions and managing the broader effects of the conflict.
On the other hand, The Guardian allocates the largest space to the economy dimension (78.9 %), with politicians and crime following in second and third place, respectively. The third priority for Daily Mail and The Times is weapons. The most notable difference among the newspapers is their focus on climate, as The Guardian pays significantly more attention to climate crises than the other newspapers.
In the British press, most news articles about the War in Ukraine encompass more than one topic. When the average number of dimensions per news item is calculated on a newspaper basis, it is seen that there are 3.4, 3.2 and 2.6 dimensions per news item for The Guardian, The Times, and Daily Mail respectively. This may be due to Daily Mail’s tabloid nature and its ability to offer shorter news to its readers. In this context, Daily Mail news items consist of approximately 545 words, while The Guardian and The Times news items consist of 930 and 801 words on average, respectively.
Rates of dimensions appearing in newspaper news.
| Politicians | Economy | Crime | Weapon | Energy | Mobility | Food | Nuclear | Climate | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The Guardian | 75.9 % | 78.9 % | 46.4 % | 33.5 % | 38.7 % | 34.1 % | 27.5 % | 15.4 % | 18.5 % |
| Daily Mail | 79.9 % | 45.8 % | 34.5 % | 45.0 % | 18.8 % | 22.6 % | 14.1 % | 14.6 % | 3.1 % |
| The Times | 76.1 % | 64.2 % | 40.2 % | 58.2 % | 25.2 % | 31.5 % | 22.0 % | 18.2 % | 5.1 % |
5 Discussion
In our study, we applied a semantic approach using the LDA topic modeling technique, expert evaluations, and text mining applications to identify the dimensions that the British press emphasized regarding the War in Ukraine. In order to download large amounts of news data from different newspapers, finding the web pattern of each newspaper and writing different codes according to the patterns and combining different formats was methodologically challenging, but not impossible.
Our findings indicate that more than seven out of every ten news articles in the British press about the War in Ukraine were related to politicians, and almost seven out of ten were related to the economy. The focus on political and economic dimensions is particularly noteworthy in the context of the UK, a country that is not directly involved in the Russia-Ukraine conflict. In this context, the war appears to have affected public welfare and the political climate in the UK, a former EU member and ally. Following the decisions taken by politicians in the EU and UK, defense spending was increased, new searches for energy supply were made, and economic sanctions were imposed on Putin supporters. On the other hand, as politicians are responsible for directing the course of war and shaping its broader impacts, it is reasonable to expect that they would dominate coverage within war-related dimensions. Their decisions and actions directly influence the strategies, outcomes, and societal consequences of the conflict. As key actors, their involvement not only shapes the trajectory of the war but also significantly affects how it is perceived by the public and represented in the media. Consequently, politicians are likely to receive the most attention in discussions surrounding the various dimensions of war.
In the news about Ukraine, the economy was even more prevalent than the news covering the most painful consequences of the war, such as casualties and fatalities, crimes, and weapons. There may be different reasons why the economy dimension is included in the news more than others. This may be due to the UK not being physically involved in the war, meaning its citizens do not suffer like the Ukrainians. The emphasis on economic issues in the media may arise from the fact that economic matters are usually more visible to the public. To boost readership, influence public opinion more effectively, and solidify their own position, the media may have given priority to the economy of the war over other dimensions.
Besides the economic concerns arising from the war, the violence and crimes caused by war, and the weapons procured and used for war, were also frequently reported in the news. In addition, the UK’s search for alternative energy due to restrictions on oil imports from Russia, the shortage of grain imported from warring countries, and the mobility of people and capital due to the war were among the most discussed issues. The British people also worried about the possibility of the conflict turning into a nuclear war, threatening their own lives, and the effects of the war on climate change. Thus, along with politicians and economy, crime, weapons, energy, mobility, food, nuclear, and climate dimensions were also among the most mentioned of the Ukrainian War news.
When the intersections of all these dimensions are examined, the war in Ukraine dimensions, as expected, intersected the most with politicians and the economy. However, the third highest intersection is not crime for all dimensions. The news about food and climate intersected with energy more than crime, while news about nuclear intersected with weapons. The increase in energy prices affects transportation and fuel costs, which in turn impacts food prices. Since fossil fuels contribute to climate change, it is unsurprising that energy and climate intersect. Similarly, given that the nuclear bomb threat was one of the most feared dimensions in the West during the war, it is also not surprising that the nuclear topic is related to weapons.
Another result of our research is that the topic distribution and priorities in British newspapers differ in some respects. At this stage, it can be argued that newspapers shape their editorial policies in alignment with their political perspectives and prioritize news coverage based on those views. This approach influences the selection and emphasis of stories they present to the public. One of this difference is seen with the priority of the dimensions. The Times and Daily Mail contain distinctive words related to the politicians dimension the most, while The Guardian contains the most words related to the economy dimension. This may be due to The Guardian’s left-leaning stance and may support the claim that the news coverage often reflects the interests of political and corporate organizations. Newspapers mostly highlight economic news that aligns with the interests of their advertisers or political affiliations (Lee and Baek 2018; Tagina and Donne 2022). Furthermore, adjusting the tendencies of newspapers according to the ideological tendencies of consumers increases consumer demand (Gentzkow and Shapiro 2010). In this context, the differences in dimension distribution among the newspapers may be due to political or ideological tendencies or their desire to increase their profits. Another remarkable example of this situation is the difference in the size of the news devoted to climate change, especially in The Guardian and Daily Mail. The news covering climate change in The Guardian is approximately six times that of Daily Mail. In the past also, The Guardian writers have published many articles arguing about the need for urgent actions to prevent climate change and reverse its effects (Ribeiro 2021). Contrary to The Guardian, Daily Mail had a skeptical attitude that underestimated the urgency of efforts to prevent climate change (Atanasova and Koteyko 2017). Although interest in the war diminished over time, the volume of news coverage on climate and nuclear energy remained relatively steady.
6 Conclusions
In conclusion, with this study we shed light on the views, attitudes, and concerns about the war through the local press of a country that is a party to the war but not involved in it. Through topic modeling and various statistical analyses we explored the prevalent dimensions addressed in the context of the Ukraine War, analyzed which dimensions were more prominently discussed among British newspapers with different political views, and examined the intersections of these dimensions. In general, the dimensions of the news about the Ukraine War in the UK press are mainly politics, economy, crime, weapons, energy, mobility, food, nuclear, and climate. The UK devoted more space to news about politicians and the economy in its coverage of the Ukrainian War, with less space devoted to crime. In addition, the distribution of the dimensions of the Ukrainian War in British newspapers varies according to the political tendencies of the newspapers. The findings will be guided in terms of identifying potential problems that may arise with the war, taking necessary measures for issues that might disturb the public, and managing the effects of the war. Additionally, by using qualitative methods with a holistic approach and from a broad perspective, this study offers a systematic approach that can be applied in future research to describe, categorize, and dimension newspaper content and provides a framework for analyzing media coverage in a replicable manner.
-
Conflict of interest: There are no relevant financial or non-financial competing interests to report.
-
Research funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
LDA Results.
Topic 1
[‘biden’, ‘trump’, ‘president’, ‘republican’, ‘house’, ‘american’, ‘white’, ‘election’, ‘state’, ‘joe’, ‘bidens’, ‘macron’, ‘ukraine’, ‘democrat’, ‘donald’, ‘congress’, ‘administration’, ‘former’, ‘le’, ‘putin’, ‘america’, ‘party’, ‘right’, ‘first’, ‘washington’].
Topic 2
[‘prisoner’, ‘death’, ‘ukraine’, ‘body’, ‘russian’, ‘ukrainian’, ‘british’, ‘officer’, ‘service’, ‘soldier’, ‘embassy’, ‘died’, ‘captured’, ‘police’, ‘family’, ‘found’, ‘foreign’, ‘aslin’, ‘man’, ‘men’, ‘war’, ‘former’, ‘released’, ‘head’, ‘son’].
Topic 3
[‘price’, ‘cost’, ‘inflation’, ‘rate’, ‘energy’, ‘bank’, ‘tax’, ‘economy’, ‘government’, ‘rise’, ‘month’, ‘increase’, ‘business’, ‘market’, ‘uk’, ‘bill’, ‘household’, ‘per’, ‘last’, ‘growth’, ‘higher’, ‘bn’, ‘cut’, ‘living’, ‘economic’].
Topic 4
[‘people’, ‘party’, ‘government’, ‘guardian’, ‘time’, ‘labour’, ‘right’, ‘public’, ‘political’, ‘election’, ‘first’, ‘health’, ‘story’, ‘may’, ‘crisis’, ‘good’, ‘last’, ‘today’, ‘newsletter’, ‘voter’, ‘country’, ‘take’, ‘week’, ‘every’, ‘many’].
Topic 5
[‘russian’, ‘ukrainian’, ‘city’, ‘ukraine’, ‘war’, ‘people’, ‘force’, ‘soldier’, ‘civilian’, ‘kyiv’, ‘russia’, ‘killed’, ‘mariupol’, ‘troop’, ‘town’, ‘region’, ‘fighting’, ‘military’, ‘invasion’, ‘kharkiv’, ‘area’, ‘attack’, ‘putin’, ‘week’, ‘building’].
Topic 6
[‘egg’, ‘supermarket’, ‘milk’, ‘morrison’, ‘shopper’, ‘store’, ‘tesco’, ‘wine’, ‘sainsburys’, ‘product’, ‘retailer’, ‘brand’, ‘cost’, ‘last’, ‘farmer’, ‘item’, ‘bill’, ‘ukraine’, ‘range’, ‘back’, ‘chicken’, ‘well’, ‘bird’, ‘bottle’, ‘aldi’].
Topic 7
[‘court’, ‘crime’, ‘child’, ‘case’, ‘police’, ‘woman’, ‘criminal’, ‘law’, ‘international’, ‘war’, ‘justice’, ‘trial’, ‘family’, ‘investigation’, ‘right’, ‘prosecutor’, ‘prison’, ‘arrest’, ‘charge’, ‘ukraine’, ‘evidence’, ‘legal’, ‘lawyer’, ‘victim’, ‘violence’].
Topic 8
[‘protest’, ‘belarus’, ‘russian’, ‘belarusian’, ‘protester’, ‘police’, ‘lukashenko’, ‘flag’, ‘activist’, ‘group’, ‘russia’, ‘georgia’, ‘ukraine’, ‘medium’, ‘ovsyannikova’, ‘symbol’, ‘antiwar’, ‘war’, ‘opposition’, ‘georgian’, ‘law’, ‘rally’, ‘last’, ‘arrested’, ‘mali’].
Topic 9
[‘ukraine’, ‘war’, ‘nato’, ‘russia’, ‘country’, ‘ukrainian’, ‘president’, ‘support’, ‘military’, ‘tank’, ‘defence’, ‘russian’, ‘germany’, ‘european’, ‘kyiv’, ‘minister’, ‘weapon’, ‘poland’, ‘putin’, ‘europe’, ‘eu’, ‘zelenskiy’, ‘need’, ‘western’, ‘german’].
Topic 10
[‘johnson’, ‘minister’, ‘mp’, ‘party’, ‘prime’, ‘tory’, ‘conservative’, ‘boris’, ‘government’, ‘former’, ‘secretary’, ‘time’, ‘public’, ‘labour’, ‘committee’, ‘people’, ‘office’, ‘sunak’, ‘cabinet’, ‘leader’, ‘election’, ‘rule’, ‘downing’, ‘leadership’, ‘pm’].
Topic 11
[‘refugee’, ‘uk’, ‘people’, ‘ukrainian’, ‘home’, ‘government’, ‘ukraine’, ‘visa’, ‘family’, ‘scheme’, ‘country’, ‘help’, ‘asylum’, ‘support’, ‘border’, ‘office’, ‘child’, ‘number’, ‘need’, ‘charity’, ‘british’, ‘host’, ‘many’, ‘million’, ‘council’].
Topic 12
[‘people’, ‘child’, ‘family’, ‘home’, ‘time’, ‘life’, ‘many’, ‘back’, ‘ukraine’, ‘war’, ‘friend’, ‘help’, ‘mother’, ‘first’, ‘still’, ‘left’, ‘hour’, ‘month’, ‘house’, ‘school’, ‘got’, ‘leave’, ‘started’, ‘every’, ‘food’].
Topic 13
[‘gas’, ‘energy’, ‘oil’, ‘price’, ‘supply’, ‘power’, ‘russia’, ‘government’, ‘electricity’, ‘russian’, ‘europe’, ‘company’, ‘market’, ‘fuel’, ‘coal’, ‘ukraine’, ‘germany’, ‘country’, ‘pipeline’, ‘winter’, ‘plan’, ‘eu’, ‘industry’, ‘uk’, ‘last’].
Topic 14
[‘ukraine’, ‘missile’, ‘ukrainian’, ‘russian’, ‘attack’, ‘russia’, ‘drone’, ‘plant’, ‘strike’, ‘power’, ‘nuclear’, ‘sea’, ‘kyiv’, ‘air’, ‘black’, ‘city’, ‘defence’, ‘region’, ‘system’, ‘force’, ‘hit’, ‘infrastructure’, ‘water’, ‘port’, ‘official’].
Topic 15
[‘climate’, ‘food’, ‘world’, ‘global’, ‘country’, ‘crisis’, ‘fuel’, ‘emission’, ‘fossil’, ‘price’, ‘people’, ‘change’, ‘cop’, ‘farmer’, ‘need’, ‘impact’, ‘report’, ‘many’, ‘million’, ‘government’, ‘energy’, ‘production’, ‘carbon’, ‘crop’, ‘last’].
Topic 16
[‘company’, ‘profit’, ‘bn’, ‘uk’, ‘investment’, ‘athlete’, ‘shell’, ‘executive’, ‘industry’, ‘business’, ‘oil’, ‘airline’, ‘chief’, ‘windfall’, ‘firm’, ‘bp’, ‘olympic’, ‘last’, ‘energy’, ‘project’, ‘share’, ‘car’, ‘shareholder’, ‘tax’, ‘flight’].
Topic 17
[‘russia’, ‘china’, ‘ukraine’, ‘country’, ‘russian’, ‘sanction’, ‘putin’, ‘war’, ‘world’, ‘foreign’, ‘international’, ‘invasion’, ‘president’, ‘chinese’, ‘state’, ‘minister’, ‘leader’, ‘global’, ‘beijing’, ‘xi’, ‘un’, ‘taiwan’, ‘security’, ‘eu’, ‘moscow’].
Topic 18
[‘australia’, ‘australian’, ‘morning’, ‘government’, ‘guardian’, ‘email’, ‘sign’, ‘albanese’, ‘story’, ‘labor’, ‘newsletter’, ‘minister’, ‘morrison’, ‘sydney’, ‘national’, ‘afternoon’, ‘every’, ‘news’, ‘mail’, ‘federal’, ‘update’, ‘queensland’, ‘nsw’, ‘app’, ‘report’].
Topic 19
[‘saudi’, ‘human’, ‘right’, ‘arabia’, ‘government’, ‘israel’, ‘country’, ‘prince’, ‘palestinian’, ‘rwanda’, ‘mohammed’, ‘israeli’, ‘report’, ‘state’, ‘international’, ‘bin’, ‘world’, ‘east’, ‘aid’, ‘crown’, ‘amnesty’, ‘people’, ‘salman’, ‘riyadh’, ‘kingdom’].
Topic 20
[‘everton’, ‘state’, ‘last’, ‘company’, ‘week’, ‘report’, ‘indigenous’, ‘climate’, ‘west’, ‘plus’, ‘garden’, ‘land’, ‘people’, ‘home’, ‘sign’, ‘time’, ‘former’, ‘amazon’, ‘world’, ‘question’, ‘good’, ‘first’, ‘guardian’, ‘potential’, ‘job’].
Topic 21
[‘chelsea’, ‘club’, ‘document’, ‘abramovich’, ‘government’, ‘league’, ‘football’, ‘musk’, ‘owner’, ‘deal’, ‘sale’, ‘leak’, ‘group’, ‘bn’, ‘premier’, ‘according’, ‘twitter’, ‘last’, ‘first’, ‘classified’, ‘yesterday’, ‘information’, ‘roman’, ‘ukraine’, ‘state’].
Topic 22
[‘uk’, ‘minister’, ‘truss’, ‘prime’, ‘eu’, ‘johnson’, ‘ireland’, ‘britain’, ‘sunak’, ‘brexit’, ‘government’, ‘british’, ‘northern’, ‘deal’, ‘leader’, ‘trade’, ‘secretary’, ‘first’, ‘liz’, ‘european’, ‘take’, ‘protocol’, ‘boris’, ‘foreign’, ‘agreement’].
Topic 23
[‘russian’, ‘russia’, ‘company’, ‘sanction’, ‘putin’, ‘ukraine’, ‘oligarch’, ‘uk’, ‘business’, ‘invasion’, ‘government’, ‘asset’, ‘including’, ‘money’, ‘service’, ‘group’, ‘medium’, ‘last’, ‘bank’, ‘firm’, ‘property’, ‘country’, ‘moscow’, ‘account’, ‘vladimir’].
Topic 24
[‘nuclear’, ‘weapon’, ‘iran’, ‘war’, ‘russia’, ‘state’, ‘use’, ‘security’, ‘threat’, ‘world’, ‘space’, ‘iranian’, ‘north’, ‘power’, ‘korea’, ‘japan’, ‘ukraine’, ‘time’, ‘country’, ‘military’, ‘missile’, ‘arm’, ‘first’, ‘international’, ‘putin’].
Topic 25
[‘party’, ‘italy’, ‘government’, ‘eu’, ‘election’, ‘european’, ‘coalition’, ‘vote’, ‘scottish’, ‘minister’, ‘italian’, ‘scotland’, ‘meloni’, ‘imf’, ‘leader’, ‘europe’, ‘independence’, ‘referendum’, ‘first’, ‘prime’, ‘policy’, ‘farright’, ‘last’, ‘country’, ‘parliament’].
Topic 26
[‘world’, ‘team’, ‘ukraine’, ‘cup’, ‘game’, ‘football’, ‘player’, ‘match’, ‘league’, ‘england’, ‘scotland’, ‘final’, ‘club’, ‘play’, ‘champion’, ‘last’, ‘sport’, ‘tournament’, ‘win’, ‘country’, ‘qatar’, ‘wale’, ‘fan’, ‘first’, ‘time’].
Topic 27
[‘time’, ‘people’, ‘world’, ‘first’, ‘life’, ‘ukraine’, ‘back’, ‘war’, ‘book’, ‘woman’, ‘show’, ‘made’, ‘story’, ‘film’, ‘come’, ‘last’, ‘take’, ‘well’, ‘never’, ‘many’, ‘still’, ‘always’, ‘good’, ‘play’, ‘look’].
Topic 28
[‘war’, ‘putin’, ‘russian’, ‘russia’, ‘ukraine’, ‘people’, ‘world’, ‘medium’, ‘soviet’, ‘news’, ‘invasion’, ‘country’, ‘many’, ‘state’, ‘journalist’, ‘west’, ‘history’, ‘political’, ‘power’, ‘time’, ‘leader’, ‘moscow’, ‘ukrainian’, ‘vladimir’, ‘western’].
Topic 29
[‘russian’, ‘russia’, ‘ukraine’, ‘putin’, ‘military’, ‘force’, ‘ukrainian’, ‘war’, ‘moscow’, ‘defence’, ‘kremlin’, ‘troop’, ‘region’, ‘official’, ‘president’, ‘attack’, ‘country’, ‘army’, ‘intelligence’, ‘weapon’, ‘wagner’, ‘territory’, ‘city’, ‘ministry’, ‘kyiv’].
Topic 30
[‘song’, ‘eurovision’, ‘music’, ‘contest’, ‘show’, ‘event’, ‘best’, ‘time’, ‘bbc’, ‘first’, ‘last’, ‘big’, ‘award’, ‘liverpool’, ‘host’, ‘world’, ‘winner’, ‘band’, ‘uk’, ‘final’, ‘stage’, ‘may’, ‘festival’, ‘star’, ‘fan’].
References
Abd-Alrazaq, A., D. Alhuwail, M. Househ, M. Hamdi, and Z. Shah. 2020. “Top Concerns of Tweeters during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Infoveillance Study.” Journal of Medical Internet Research 22 (4): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.2196/19016.Search in Google Scholar
Ahlawat, R., M. Ghai, and S. K. Garg. 2022. “Bibliometric Analysis of Published Research on Russia-Ukraine War Using VOSviewer.” Economic Affairs 67 (04s): 997–1002. https://doi.org/10.46852/0424-2513.4s.2022.33.Search in Google Scholar
Aslan, S. 2023. “A Deep Learning-Based Sentiment Analysis Approach (MF-CNN-BILSTM) and Topic Modeling of Tweets Related to the Ukraine–Russia Conflict.” Applied Soft Computing 143: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2023.110404.Search in Google Scholar
Atanasova, D., and N. Koteyko. 2017. “Metaphors in Guardian Online and Mail Online Opinion-Page Content on Climate Change: War, Religion, and Politics.” Environmental Communication 11 (4): 452–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2015.1024705.Search in Google Scholar
Ball, T. 2022. “Ukraine Accuses Russia of Killing 56 Care Home Residents in Luhansk.” The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/russia-ukraine-art-school-mariupol-6fprjwq0t (accessed July 20, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Baumer, E. P., D. Mimno, S. Guha, E. Quan, and G. K. Gay. 2017. “Comparing Grounded Theory and Topic Modeling: Extreme Divergence or Unlikely Convergence?” Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology 68 (6): 1397–410. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23786.Search in Google Scholar
Beaumont, P. 2023. “Leaked Amnesty Review Finds Own Ukraine Report ‘Legally Questionable.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/28/amnesty-international-leaked-review-ukraine-report-legally-questionable (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Berkhead, S. 2022. “Ukraine Fightback Gains Momentum with Bid to Retake Kherson.” The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ukraine-destroys-bridges-in-bid-to-retake-kherson-from-russia-tzpnrpw6l (accessed July 20, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Blei, D. M., A. Y. Ng, and M. I. Jordan. 2003. “Latent Dirichlet Allocation.” Journal of Machine Learning Research 3: 993–1022. https://doi.org/10.1162/jmlr.2003.3.4-5.993.Search in Google Scholar
Boffey, D., and P. Partridge. 2022. “Plan to Ship Grain Out of Ukraine Dealt Blow Due to Mines.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jun/07/plan-to-ship-grain-out-of-ukraine-dealt-blow-by-russian-sea-mines (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Borger, J., and D. Sabbagh. 2022. “Ran Provides ‘Technical Support’ for Russian Drones Killing Civilians, Says US.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/oct/20/russia-ukraine-war-iran-drones-advisers-crimea (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Brusylovska, O., and I. Maksymenko. 2023. “Analysis of the Media Discourse on the 2022 War in Ukraine: The Case of Russia.” Regional Science Policy and Practice 15 (1): 222–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12579.Search in Google Scholar
Buenano-Fernandez, D., M. Gonzalez, D. Gil, and S. Luján-Mora. 2020. “Text Mining of Open-Ended Questions in Self-Assessment of University Teachers: An LDA Topic Modeling Approach.” IEEE Access 8 (1): 35318–30. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2974983.Search in Google Scholar
Butler, J. 2005. “Photography, War, Outrage.” PMLA 120 (3): 822–7. https://doi.org/10.1632/003081205X63886.Search in Google Scholar
Carvalho, A., and J. Burgess. 2005. “Cultural Circuits of Climate Change in U.K. Broadsheet Newspapers, 1985–2003.” Risk Analysis An International Journal 25 (6): 1457–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2005.00692.Search in Google Scholar
Chang, J., S. Gerrish, C. Wang, J. Boyd-Graber, and D. Blei. 2009. “Reading Tea Leaves: How Humans Interpret Topic Models.” In Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, 7–10. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Curran Associates Inc. Red Hook, NY, USA, 288–96.Search in Google Scholar
Demata, M., M. Conoscenti, and Y. Stavrakakis. 2020. “Riding the Populist Wave. Metaphors of Populism and Anti-populism in the Daily Mail and the Guardian.” Iperstoria Journal of American and English Studies 15: 8–35. https://doi.org/10.13136/2281-4582/2020.i15.686.Search in Google Scholar
Delanty, G. 2023. “Introduction to the Special Issue on the Russo-Ukrainian War: A New European War? Considerations on the Russo-Ukrainian War.” European Journal of Social Theory 26 (4): 431–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684310231174098.Search in Google Scholar
Driedger, J. J. 2021. “Bilateral Defence and Security Cooperation Despite Disintegration: Does the Brexit Process Divide the United Kingdom and Germany on Russia?” European Journal of International Security 6 (1): 86–108. https://doi.org/10.1017/eis.2020.18.Search in Google Scholar
Euronews. 2022. “Budapeşte Memorandumu Nedir? Ukrayna Nükleer Silahlardan Ne Zaman Vazgeçti? ”Euronews. https://tr.euronews.com/2022/03/03/budapeste-memorandumu-nedir-ukrayna-nukleer-silahlardan-ne-zaman-vazgecti (accessed October 10, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Fazackerley, A. 2022. “Hundreds of Ukrainian Refugees Removed from UK’s ‘Unsuitable’ Housing Sponsors.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/may/08/hundreds-of-ukrainian-refugees-removed-from-uks-unsuitable-housing-sponsors (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Fengler, S., M. Kreutler, M. Alku, B. Barlovac, M. Bastian, S. S Bodrunova, J. Brinkmann, et al.. 2020. “The Ukraine Conflict and the European Media: A Comparative Study of Newspapers in 13 European Countries.” Journalism 21 (3): 399–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918774311.Search in Google Scholar
Gentleman, A., and D. Taylor. 2022. “Extended Visa Scheme Launched to Let Ukrainians Join Family in UK.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/04/extended-visa-scheme-ukrainians-join-family-in-uk-russia-ukraine (accessed September 7, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Gentzkow, M., and J. M. Shapiro. 2010. “What Drives Media Slant? Evidence from US Daily Newspapers.” Econometrica 78 (1): 35–71. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA7195.Search in Google Scholar
Glover, S. 2022. “Stephen Glover: Net Zero Can Wait. If We Are to Survive at All, We Must Ditch the Green Dogma… Our Energy Security Has Been Sacrificed on the Altar of Ideology.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-10682323/STEPHEN-GLOVER-Net-zero-wait-survive-ditch-Green-dogma.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Goodin, E. 2022a. “Biden Warns Food Shortages Are ‘Going to Be Real’ across the Globe Because of Putin Invading the World’s “Breadbasket” Ukraine.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10649439/Biden-warns-food-shortages-going-real-Ukraine-invasion.html (accessed August 30, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Goodin, E. 2022b. “Biden Accuses Putin of GENOCIDE in Ukraine while Talking about Americans’ Pain at the Pumps and Says 70% of Price Rises Are Because of His Ukraine Invasion.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10712737/Biden-accuses-Putin-GENOCIDE-Ukraine.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Grassia, M. G., M. Marino, R. Mazza, M. Misuraca, and A. Stavolo. 2022. “Topic Modeling for Analysing the Russian Propaganda in the Conflict with Ukraine.” In ASA 2022 Data-Driven Decision Making, edited by E. D. Bella, L. Fabbris, and C. Lagazio, 245–50. Firenze: Firenze University Press.10.36253/979-12-215-0106-3.43Search in Google Scholar
Grylls, G., C. Philp, and B. Waterfield. 2022. “Russia-Ukraine War: We’ll Know before Putin Goes Nuclear, Says GCHQ Chief.” The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/russia-ukraine-war-putin-missile-strikes-counter-offensive-g7-zelensky-latest-news-hh8cknzc6 (accessed July 20, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Guan, Q., and M. N. Lawi. 2024. “An Unsupervised Learning Study on International Media Responses Bias to the War in Ukraine.” Corpus-based Studies across Humanities 1 (1): 79–97. https://doi.org/10.1515/csh-2023-0010.Search in Google Scholar
Guardian, Staff. 2023. “Kakhovka Dam Collapse before and after: Satellite Images Reveal Extent of Flood Disaster in Ukraine.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/07/kakhovka-dam-flooding-ukraine-before-and-after-satellite-images-reservoir-kherson-oblast (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Hagen, L. 2018. “Content Analysis of E-Petitions with Topic Modeling: How to Train and Evaluate LDA Models?” Information Processing & Management 54 (6): 1292–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2018.05.006.Search in Google Scholar
Hanley, H. W., D. Kumar, and Z. Durumeric. 2023. “Happenstance: Utilizing Semantic Search to Track Russian State Media Narratives about the Russo-Ukrainian War on Reddit.” In Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 17, 327–38. Palo Alto, CA: AAAI Press.10.1609/icwsm.v17i1.22149Search in Google Scholar
Heffer, G. 2022. “Boris Johnson Won’t ‘Lecture’India over its Ties to Vladimir Putin’s Russia – Despite One of His Cabinet Ministers Slamming New Delhi for Not Being ‘Strong’ Enough in Condemnation of the Invasion of Ukraine.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10731817/Boris-Johnson-wont-use-India-trip-lecture-Narendra-Modi-ties-Vladimir-Putins-Russia.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Henley, J. 2022. “One in Four Europeans Say Their Financial Position Is ‘precarious.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/07/one-in-four-europeans-say-their-financial-position-is-precarious (accessed September 7, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Henley, J. 2023. “European Countries Pledge Huge Expansion of North Sea Wind Farms.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/apr/24/european-countries-pledge-huge-expansion-of-north-sea-wind-farms (accessed September 18, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Howes, S., W. Stewart, and M. Hookham. 2022. “The Blinded Teacher Who Woke Us up to Putin’s Savagery Makes it to Safety - Now the Mail on Sunday Helps Her Get Surgery as She Tells How She ‘Never Believed War Would Start’ until Missile Hit Her Home.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10655865/Mission-save-sight-teacher-blinded-Putins-savagery.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Hrubinko, A., and N. Buhlai. 2022. “Historical Path of Ukrainian-British Relations (To the 30th Anniversary of the Strategic Partnership).” Ukrainian Historical Journal 1: 206–19. https://doi.org/10.15407/uhj2022.01.206.Search in Google Scholar
Inman, P., R. Davies, and J. Kollewe. 2022. “Ukraine Crisis: Commodities Prices Surge as Stock Markets Slump.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/feb/24/gas-and-oil-prices-surge-amid-fears-of-global-energy-shortage-russia-ukraine (accessed September 19, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Jolly, J. 2022. “BP Profits Triple to £7bn as Oil Prices Surge Because of Ukraine War.” The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/aug/02/bp-profits-oil-prices-ukraine-war-energy-prices-cost-of-living-crisis (accessed August 29, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Khairova, N., Y. Holyk, D. Sytnikov, Y. Mishcheriakov, and N. Shanidze. 2024. “Topic Modelling of Ukraine War-Related News Using Latent Dirichlet Allocation with Collapsed Gibbs Sampling.” In 8th International Conference on Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Systems, April 12–13, 2024, 1–15. Lviv: CEUR-WS.Search in Google Scholar
Khan, M. 2023. “Ukraine ‘must Root Out Corruption’ on Path to EU.” The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ukraine-must-root-out-corruption-on-path-to-eu-d6qlcmzfd (accessed July 20, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Kitis, E., and M. Milapedes. 1997. “Read it and Believe it: How Metaphor Constructs Ideology in News Discourse. A Case Study.” Journal of Pragmatics 28 (5): 557–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(97)00075-1.Search in Google Scholar
Korenčić, D., S. Ristov, J. Repar, and J. Šnajder. 2021. “A Topic Coverage Approach to Evaluation of Topic Models.” IEEE Access 9: 123280–312. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3109425.Search in Google Scholar
Koshiw, I., and J. Rankin. 2022. “Attack on Ukraine Nuclear Plant ‘Suicidal’, Says UN Chief as He Urges Access to Site.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/08/ukraine-nuclear-plant-attack-suicidal-un-chief-zaporizhzhia-russia (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Lee, N. Y., and K. Baek. 2018. “Squeezing Out Economic News for Business News? Changes in Economic Journalism over the Past 20 Years in South Korea.” Journalism 19 (9–10): 1220–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884916665403.Search in Google Scholar
Lewis, L. 2022. “Europe Has Just A MONTH of Gas Supplies Left before Putin’s Threat to Turn off Gas Bites - as the Rouble Soars Back to its Pre-war Level after His ‘Blackmail’.” The Daily Mail https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10675421/Europe-just-MONTH-gas-supplies-left-Putins-threat-turn-gas-bites.html (accessed August 29, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Libicki, M. C. 1995. What is Information Warfare?. National Defence University. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA367662.pdf (accessed October 5, 2023).10.21236/ADA385640Search in Google Scholar
Maathuis, C., and I. Kerkhof. 2023. “The First Two Months in the War in Ukraine through Topic Modeling and Sentiment Analysis.” Regional Science Policy and Practice 15 (1): 56–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12632.Search in Google Scholar
Mclaughlin, C. 2022. “How Spiralling Cost of Chicken Feed Is Driving UK Egg Crisis: Boss of Poultry Feed Firm Says Wheat Shortage Caused by Ukraine War and Europe’s Dry Weather Is Pushing up Prices to ‘Record’ Levels Leaving Egg Farmers Unable to Meet Production Costs.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10808605/How-spiralling-cost-chicken-feed-driving-UK-egg-crisis-Massey-Feeds-explains.html (accessed August 29, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Menon, R., and D. R. DePetris. 2023. “Can China Broker Peace in Ukraine? Don’t Rule it Out.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/apr/28/china-peace-ukraine-xi-jinping-moscow-kyiv (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Michel, J. B., Y. K. Shen, A. P. Aiden, A. Veres, M. K. Gray, The Google Books Team, J. P. Pickett, et al.. 2011. “Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books.” Science 331 (6014): 176–82. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1199644.Search in Google Scholar
Mooney, J. 2023. “Weapons Used by Russia in Ukraine Contain Parts Made in Ireland.” The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/weapons-used-by-russia-in-ukraine-contain-parts-made-in-ireland-p32hfmx3g (accessed July 20, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Nachiappan, A. 2022. “Interest Rates Rise as Bank of England Warns of 11% Inflation.” The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/interest-rates-rise-to-1-25-as-bank-of-england-tackles-inflation-mj86pmvvn (accessed October 3, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Nath, C. D., A. Biswas, N. Sultana, and S. A. Shozal. 2024. “Framing Russia-Ukraine War in the Newspapers of Bangladesh: A Topic Modeling Approach.” South Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 5 (2): 252–67. https://doi.org/10.48165/sajssh.2024.5215.Search in Google Scholar
Neate, R. 2022a. “Soaring Food Prices Push More Cargill Family Members on to World’s Richest 500 List.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2022/apr/17/soaring-food-prices-push-more-cargill-family-members-on-to-world-richest-500-list (accessed August 27, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Neate, R. 2022b. “More than 15,000 Millionaires Expected to Leave Russia in 2022.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jun/13/more-than-15000-millionaires-expected-to-leave-russia-in-2022 (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Nicol, P. 2023. “Author Patricia Nicol Reveals a Selection of the Best Books on: Ukraine.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-11689895/Author-Patricia-Nicol-reveals-selection-best-books-Ukraine.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
O’Carroll, L. 2023. “Zelenskiy Hails ‘Powerful Support’ for Ukraine at Moldova Summit.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/01/zelenskiy-pleads-for-security-guarantees-for-ukraine-and-moldova (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Ojala, M., and M. Pantti. 2017. “Naturalising the New Cold War: The Geopolitics of Framing the Ukrainian Conflict in Four European Newspapers.” Global Media and Communication 13 (1): 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/174276651769447.Search in Google Scholar
Oliver, C. 2023. “Bakhmut Burns: Ukraine Accuses Putin’s Forces of Using Deadly White Phosphorous in Bid ‘To Destroy’ Embattled City.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12053845/Bakhmut-burns-Ukraine-accuses-Putins-forces-accused-using-deadly-white-phosphorous.html (accessed September 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Ostapenko, L., A. Vorontsova, I. Voronenko, I. Makarenko, and S. Kozmenko. 2023. “Coverage of the Russian Armed Aggression against Ukraine in Scientific Works: Bibliometric Analysis.” Journal of International Studies 16 (3): 9–33. https://doi.org/10.14254/2071-8330.2023/16-3/1.Search in Google Scholar
Parashar, P. 2023. “Tinder Swipes Left on Russia! Dating App Will Quit the Country-A Year after Ukraine Invasion Began–Citing ‘The Right to Protect Human Rights’.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12038193/Tinder-quit-Russia-citing-right-protect-human-rights.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Partington, R., and P. Inman. 2022. “UK Will Face Worse Inflation than Other Major Economies, Says Bank Governor.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/jun/29/central-bank-heads-warn-world-economy-faces-new-inflationary-era (accessed August 29, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Poulter, S., M. Nicol, and D. Hussain. 2022. “Germany Fears Russia May Cut off its Gas Supplies Next unless it Agrees to Pay Bills in Roubles after Putin Stopped Sales to Poland and Bulgaria.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10761099/Its-blackmail-European-leaders-accuse-Russia-holding-governments-ransom-turning-gas.html (accessed September 2, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Pouriyeh, S., M. Allahyaril, G. Cheng, H. R. Arabnia, K. Kochut, and M. Atzori. 2019. “R-LDA: Profiling RDF Datasets Using Knowledge-Based Topic Modeling.” In 2019 IEEE 13th International Conference on Semantic Computing (ICSC), 146–9. Newport Beach, CA, USA.10.1109/ICOSC.2019.8665510Search in Google Scholar
Quinn, K. M., B. L. Monroe, M. Colaresi, M. H. Crespin, and D. R. Radev. 2010. “How to Analyze Political Attention with Minimal Assumptions and Costs.” American Journal of Political Science 54 (1): 209–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00427.x.Search in Google Scholar
Ribeiro, R. 2021. Discourse Analysis on Climate Change: From Guardian Newspaper articles on Business, Economy and Climate Change. Unpublished master’s, Hame University of Applied Science. https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/498687 (accessed October 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Robinson, M., K. Jones, and H. Janicke. 2015. “Cyber Warfare: Issues and Challenges.” Computers & Security 49: 70–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2014.11.007.Search in Google Scholar
Rose, T., and P. Hannam. 2022. “NSW State Budget 2022: Vouchers for Schoolchildren, Stamp Duty Reform and A Forecast Surplus in 2024-25.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jun/21/nsw-state-budget-2022-new-south-wales (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Sabbagh, D., P. Oltermann, and L. Tondo. 2023. “Officials Believe Pro-Ukraine Group May Have Sabotaged Nord Stream–Reports.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/07/officials-believe-pro-ukraine-group-sabotage-nord-stream-pipelines (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Sadeek, S. N., and S. Hanaoka. 2023. “Assessment of Text-Generated Supply Chain Risks Considering News and Social Media during Disruptive Events.” Social Network Analysis and Mining 13 (96): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-023-01100-0.Search in Google Scholar
Sauer, P. 2022. “Cosmopolitan No More: Russians Feel Sting of Cultural and Economic Rift.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/20/russians-feel-sting-of-cultural-and-economic-rift-sanctions-ukraine (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Sazzed, S. 2022. “The Dynamics of Ukraine-Russian Conflict through the Lens of Demographically Diverse Twitter Data.” In 2022 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data), 6018–24. Osaka, Japan.10.1109/BigData55660.2022.10020274Search in Google Scholar
Sbalchiero, S., and M. Eder. 2020. “Topic Modeling, Long Texts and the Best Number of Topics. Some Problems and Solutions.” Quality and Quantity 54 (4): 1095–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-020-00976-w.Search in Google Scholar
Selimi, F. 2023. “Monitoring of the Daily Printed Newspapers of the Western Balkans for the Coverage of the Events in the Russia-Ukraine War with Special Emphasis on Their Cover Page.” The Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies 13 (3): e202327. https://doi.org/10.30935/ojcmt/13134.Search in Google Scholar
Shubalyi, O., and A. Gordiichuk. 2022. “The Socio-Economic Consequences of the War in Ukraine: The National, Regional, and Global Dimensions.” Regional Barometer Analyses and Prognoses 18 (1): 19–37. https://doi.org/10.56583/br.721.Search in Google Scholar
Steel, J. 2023. “Compare Iraq with Ukraine. It’s Clear the Era of US Global Supremacy Is over.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/mar/20/iraq-ukraine-us-global-supremacy-washington-power-china-global-south (accessed July 12, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Stewart, H., and D. Sabbagh. 2022. “Boris Johnson Promises Ukraine UK-led Troop Training Scheme on Kyiv Visit.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/jun/17/boris-johnson-promises-ukraine-uk-led-troop-training-scheme-on-kyiv-visit (accessed July 17, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Stewart, W. 2022. “Russian Politician, 47 – A Former Gas Industry Executive - Becomes the Latest Energy Official to Die since Ukraine Was Invaded.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-11310557/Russian-MP-ex-gas-industry-executive-latest-energy-official-die-Ukraine-war.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Tagina, M. L., and F. D. Donne. 2022. “El Framing De La Economía En La Prensa Local De Argentina: Explicando El Sesgo Pro Gobierno.” Latin American Research Review 57 (2): 388–407. https://doi.org/10.1017/lar.2022.31.Search in Google Scholar
Taylor, H.. 2022. “UK Prevents Use of Private Jet Linked to Russian Oligarchs.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/02/uk-prevents-use-of-private-jet-linked-to-russian-oligarchs (accessed September 7, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Tonkin, S.. 2022. “Nuclear War between the US and Russia Would Cause A Global Famine and Kill More than 5 BILLION People, Study Finds.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-11113139/Nuclear-war-Russia-cause-global-famine.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Tucker, M., and T. Parfitt. 2022. “Ukraine Fears Russia Will Cut off Zaporizhzhya Nuclear Plant from Grid.” The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/russia-plotting-false-flag-attack-on-zaporizhzhya-nuclear-plant-tgcjzl799 (accessed July 20, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Vaughan, A.. 2023. “Carbon Emissions Rise as Ukraine War Results in Return to Coal.” The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/carbon-emissions-risen-coal-russia-war-ukraine-climate-change-2023-t59wsk9g5 (accessed October 22, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Walker, P. 2022. “UK Sanctions Target Putin’s Financial Network Including Rumoured Girlfriend.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/13/new-uk-russia-sanctions-target-putin-financial-network-ex-wife (accessed September 3, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
Wang, C., N. Guo, M. Lian, and X. Xiao. 2020. “Differences in Regional Media Responses to China’s Holistic Tourism: Big Data Analysis Based on Newspaper Text.” IEEE Access 8: 135050–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3011229.Search in Google Scholar
Wilcock, D. 2022. “British Lobbyists Working for ‘Hostile States’ like Russia and China Will Be Forced to Join ‘Foreign Influence’ Register – and Could Face JAIL if They Don’t – under Ministers’ Plans to Tackle London ‘Laundromat’ Criticism.” The Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10659813/UK-lobbyists-hostile-states-like-Russia-China-forced-join-foreign-influence-register.html (accessed July 9, 2023).Search in Google Scholar
© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Factors Influencing the Adoption of Green Libraries for Environmental Sustainability: A Systematic Literature Review
- Dimensions of the Ukrainian War in British Press: A Topic Modeling Approach
- Library Leadership in Minority Serving Institutions: Investigating the Backgrounds of MSI Library Directors
- Characteristics of OA Diamond Journal Publishing in Non-English-Speaking Countries
- Aging-Related Information Needs and Barriers Experienced by LGBT+ Older Adults
- Graduate Education in China Meets AI: Key Factors for Adopting AI-Generated Content Tools
- Sentiment Analysis of Chinese Ancient Poetry Based on Multidimensional Attention Under the Background of Digital Intelligence Integration
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Factors Influencing the Adoption of Green Libraries for Environmental Sustainability: A Systematic Literature Review
- Dimensions of the Ukrainian War in British Press: A Topic Modeling Approach
- Library Leadership in Minority Serving Institutions: Investigating the Backgrounds of MSI Library Directors
- Characteristics of OA Diamond Journal Publishing in Non-English-Speaking Countries
- Aging-Related Information Needs and Barriers Experienced by LGBT+ Older Adults
- Graduate Education in China Meets AI: Key Factors for Adopting AI-Generated Content Tools
- Sentiment Analysis of Chinese Ancient Poetry Based on Multidimensional Attention Under the Background of Digital Intelligence Integration
