Dynamic categorization of word meanings in the individual semantic category of the Chinese character jie (解)

3.1 Three stages of dynamic categorization

There are three principal stages in the process of dynamic categorization as follows:

The first stage is conservative gradual change within categories, which refers to adjustments in the status of members within a category, resulting in a realignment of typicality and membership. The second stage is interaction/spanning between adjacent/similar semantic categories, which refers to the process of mutual expansion between adjacent or similar categories, allowing for the blurring of categorical boundaries and the emergence of hybrid meanings. The third stage is decategorization, as an open-ended transformation, which represents a more radical form of change, where words may undergo complete recategorization or decategorization, moving beyond their original categorical framework. (Zeng 2025)

Initially, semantic evolution involves conservative gradual change within categories, characterized by internal adjustments among category members without breaching established category boundaries. Specifically, these gradual changes rely heavily on the base/profile mechanism, whereby core semantic meanings (base) are highlighted (profile) in specific contexts. It is the interaction between the base and its salient aspects, rather than either element alone, that determines word meaning (Wen and Yang 2022).

As category membership enriches, the second stage emerges, characterized by interaction and spanning between adjacent or similar categories. At this stage, cognitive mechanisms such as metaphor and metonymy facilitate semantic expansion beyond original category boundaries, demonstrating linguistic cognitive flexibility and creativity.

Finally, the decategorization stage occurs, wherein word meanings typically become more abstract, transcending their initial concrete or abstract categories and often evolving into function words or grammatical markers, thus losing their original concrete-action connotations. We must point out that the three stages collectively form a continuum of dynamic categorization for an individual semantic category, in which some words experience only the first two stages, others proceed directly and radically through decategorization, whereas most words develop sequentially along the continuum (Zeng 2018).

3.2 Mechanisms of dynamic categorization

Zeng (2018) identifies four main mechanisms of dynamic categorical development: (1) base/profile mechanism; (2) metaphor; (3) metonymy; and (4) shifts in image schemas.

The meaning of a word can be described in terms of base and profile. The base refers to the domain foundation within which the expression is construed, and it constitutes the cognitive domain of the word’s meaning. When a specific part of the base receives prominence, it functions as the profile. This profile constitutes the meaning of the expression. By profiling different parts within the semantic domain, one can dynamically construct category members that share the same base (Langacker 1991; Zeng 2021). Metaphor facilitates semantic comprehension and expression by mapping attributes from one category, usually concrete and easily comprehensible, onto another category, often abstract and less tangible. Metonymy, by contrast, establishes new meanings through contiguity, mapping specific properties or components of one category onto an adjacent category. Image schemas, formed through bodily experience, provide basic cognitive frameworks, such as path schemas and container schemas, that underpin dynamic semantic categorization.

3.3 The application of dynamic categorization theory

This study adopts dynamic categorization theory as its core analytical framework. The necessity of this approach is rooted in the high degree of complexity and the significant diachronic characteristics inherent in the research subject, the character jie. The character jie is not a static collection of polysemous meanings but rather a semantic network that has evolved over several millennia. The evolution of its meaning involves not only the derivation of new senses but also the dynamic adjustment of typicality status between core and peripheral meanings.

Traditional and static theories of categorization exhibit clear limitations in their explanatory power when applied to such a complex diachronic process (Liu 2006; Zeng 2025). Classical categorization theory, for instance, is based on necessary and sufficient conditions, and its rigid category boundaries cannot accommodate two seemingly disparate meanings within the same category. Prototype theory, while depicting the structure of jie’s semantic network at specific historical cross sections by introducing family resemblance and typicality effects, remains essentially synchronic. It focuses on describing what a category looks like but fails to adequately explain the dynamic process of how a category came to be this way.

Dynamic categorization theory precisely compensates for this core deficiency. The fundamental advantage of this theory lies in its shift of focus from static structure to dynamic process. It attends not only to the diachronic evolution of semantic categories over the long course of history but also to the immediate emergence of meaning in specific usage contexts. Therefore, the theory provides a unified perspective that enables a systematic investigation of how every subtle change in jie occurs under the impetus of cognitive mechanisms. It is this emphasis on process and mechanism that makes dynamic categorization theory the more suitable and explanatorily powerful theoretical tool for analyzing the semantic evolution of jie.

4.1 Corpus

The primary data for this research are from the Academia Sinica Ancient Chinese Corpus, which is an authoritative resource for Chinese linguistics. To enable a comprehensive diachronic analysis, this study utilizes three of its tagged sub-corpora: the Old Chinese Corpus (pre-Qin to Western Han), the Middle Chinese Corpus (Eastern Han to Northern and Southern dynasties), and the Early Mandarin Chinese Corpus (Tang and later). The use of these tagged corpora provided the reliable linguistic examples necessary for the qualitative analysis. As secondary data, this study consults Glossary of Terms and Expressions in Chinese Poetry, Lyrics, and Songs (诗词曲语辞汇释, Shiciqu Yuci Huishi) (Zhang 1977 [1953]), which records the historical variation and transformation of terms in Chinese poetry, lyrics, and songs. Its focus on lexical fluidity and diachronic change provides essential evidence that supplements corpus findings on semantic evolution.

4.2 Data collection

The primary data for this study were collected and processed directly within the online interface of the Academia Sinica Ancient Chinese Corpus. The initial step involved using the retrieval function to search for all occurrences of the character jie within the three designated historical sub-corpora.

The subsequent filtering and analysis were conducted using the platform’s advanced processing tool. The initial search results were reviewed online, and irrelevant instances, such as those where jie appeared as part of a proper name, a place name, or in corrupted or contextually ambiguous sentences, were manually identified and excluded from consideration for the final analysis. The valid examples were then examined and categorized chronologically directly within the corpus environment, forming the basis for tracing jie’s semantic evolution.

4.3 Data analysis

Before the diachronic analysis could be conducted, a foundational analysis of the character’s core semantic properties is necessary. This preliminary step is methodologically essential because it establishes a stable baseline from which all subsequent changes can be explained.

This foundational analysis is approached from four perspectives, and each perspective provides an indispensable tool for the main diachronic investigation. First, the application of the base/profile mechanism deconstructs the character’s meaning into its core semantic components. This deconstruction provides the analytical framework that is necessary to track precisely how these components are later altered, abstracted, or eliminated over time. Second, the identification of associated image schemas reveals the underlying cognitive structures. These structures are what enable the metaphorical and metonymic extensions from concrete to abstract domains, so their identification is crucial for explaining the logic of those extensions. Third, an assessment of the character’s potential for categorical extension clarifies its cognitive status as a basic-level category. This assessment explains why jie is a productive source of semantic change and justifies its selection as a suitable subject for a study on dynamic categorization. Finally, an examination of dictionary definitions and ancient written forms serves to ground the analysis in historically attested meanings. This step corroborates the identified prototype meaning and ensures that the entire diachronic analysis begins from a verifiable starting point.

The main diachronic analysis proceeds after this foundational work. We conduct an in-depth reading and systematic summary of the corpus examples from each historical period. The semantic evolutionary path of jie is divided into three levels for analysis. The first level is gradual change within its basic semantic category. The analysis examines how jie combines with different types of nouns, a process that results in an initial extension of its meaning. The second level is interaction and spanning of jie between adjacent or similar semantic categories. The study investigates how jie achieves a transition from the concrete physical domain to the abstract conceptual domain. This transition occurs through cognitive mechanisms such as metaphor and metonymy. The final level is decategorization. The analysis explains how jie gradually detaches from its original verbal category and evolves into a function word with a more abstract role. It also organizes the different functional stages that appear during its decategorization process. In each step of the analysis, we identify and explain the cognitive mechanisms that drive the semantic changes.

5.1 Semantic base of jie

The original meaning of jie pertains to actions such as releasing, separating, or untying, categorizing it as a verb denoting a change of state. When examining its primitive meaning, one typically envisions a scenario where an agent or force acts upon an object, causing it to become free from a state of constraint or fixation. The semantic base of jie thus encompasses two fundamental components: the instrument and the state change. The instrument generally refers to a hand or a physical tool, while the state change denotes the transition of an object from a fixed or bound state to a released or loosened one. The patient is the object undergoing this transformation.

In practical contexts, the instrument applied by the agent could be human or non-human forces. For example, when we use the expression jie sheng (解绳, ‘untie a rope’), the instrument involved might be the hand itself, scissors, or a knife blade. Essentially, the instrument is pivotal in altering the current state, facilitating the transition of the object from one state into another (Hopper and Thompson 1980).

The core semantic feature of jie is state change, specifically describing the transformation of an object from a condition of constraint, fixation, or closure into a state of release, looseness, or openness. Such a change constitutes the direct outcome of the action implied by jie. For example, jie suo (解锁, ‘unlock’) clearly signifies the transformation from a locked state to an open state.

Result marks the ultimate manifestation of the action of jie. It not only indicates completion but also highlights the effect brought about by the action. In contexts involving jie, the result typically features a significant alteration in the patient’s state. Examples include jie kun (解困, ‘resolve difficulties’) representing the elimination of troubles, and jie huo (解惑, ‘resolve confusion’) denoting the clarification of doubts.

Figure 1 illustrates its core components as revealed through base/profile analysis.

Figure 1:

Semantic base of jie.

According to the base/profile theory, nouns typically foreground entities, whereas verbs foreground relationships (Evans and Green 2006; Langacker 1987; Zeng 2021). In the verb jie, at least two components are prominently highlighted. For instance, in jiehuo, jie foregrounds both the instrument (thinking or explanation) and the state change (transition from confusion to clarity). Similarly, jiesuo (解锁) foregrounds the instrument (key-turning action) and the state change (transition of the lock from closed to open).

5.2 Image schemas associated with jie

Johnson (1987) and Lakoff (1987) initiated the theory of image schemas within cognitive linguistics. Commonly identified image schemas include path schema, container schema, force schema, part-whole schema (Wen and Yang 2024). Johnson (1987) identifies many other image schemas, such as balance schema, compulsion schema, blockage schema, counterforce schema, restraint removal schema, enablement schema, attraction schema, mass-count schema and link schema. However, he also thinks that these image schemas are highly selective, and we cannot list all of them.

Analyzing jie through the lens of its fundamental meaning and usage contexts, we identify several relevant schemas – force schema, container schema, path schema, and part-whole schema.

Firstly, jie prominently involves the force schema. An agent purposefully applies an instrument onto a patient, producing a result. Such an instrument could be a human hand or another facilitating device. From the semantic base, it is evident that jie connects two entities – typically the hand or an auxiliary tool, and the patient – through the action itself. Consequently, jie fundamentally implies an action involving force transfer, including dynamics such as propulsion, compulsion, obstruction, reaction, transformation of force, removal of constraints, granting force, attraction, and repulsion.

Secondly, jie involves the container schema, prominently evident in meanings associated with removing restrictions or releasing constraints, such as jietuo (解脱, ‘extricate oneself’) and jiebang (解绑, ‘unbind’). This schema represents a shift from containment (restricted internal state) to freedom (external state). The inside-outside opposition within the container schema is highly applicable here, vividly symbolizing the transition from being bound to becoming free.

Thirdly, the path schema is essential when jie denotes comprehension or problem-solving processes. In contexts such as solving or explaining issues, cognitive processes traverse from confusion to clarity, metaphorically moving along a mental pathway from the initial problem state (uncertainty) to the final understanding (clarity).

Finally, the part-whole schema is activated in contexts such as jiepou (解剖, ‘dissect’) or jiegou (解构, ‘deconstruct’), where jie involves separating specific parts from a larger whole. Here, jie signifies the isolation or identification of discrete components within an entity, as exemplified by detailed anatomical dissection.

Therefore, jie encompasses diverse image schemas which transition from constraint to freedom, from obscurity to clarity, and from whole to parts. Depending on context, these schemas may vary in prominence, always capturing the essence of transition between distinct states. For example, problem-solving typically emphasizes the path and force schemas, whereas untying a knot highlights containment and part-whole schemas. This flexible combination enriches the dynamic semantic characteristics of jie.

5.3 Possibilities for categorical extension of jie

Generally, cognitive categorization occurs across three hierarchical levels: superordinate, basic-level, and subordinate categories. Typically, superordinate categories are collective nouns, basic-level categories are countable nouns, and subordinate categories, sharing family resemblances, represent parasitic categories possessing more precise information than basic-level categories (Wen and Yang 2024).

Basic-level terms are most frequently utilized in daily language (Wen 2014). Jie belongs precisely to the basic-level category because encountering jie spontaneously conjures images of a person using hands or tools to untie or release something. Hence, jie represents a prototypical action event, encompassing an agent, patient, action, and resultant state. As human actions commonly involve hand participation, jie notably emphasizes bodily movements, classifying it as a prototypical bodily-action verb. Its semantic concreteness forms distinct cognitive imagery, making jie cognitively prominent. Basic-level words usually form the cognitive foundation, upon which superordinate and subordinate categories build, thereby granting them the highest morphological productivity. Jie, as a fundamental bodily-action term, easily combines with similar basic-level words to generate terms such as jiekai (解开, ‘untie’) and jiemi (解密, ‘decode’).

Considering the base/profile mechanism, the fundamental meaning of jie, releasing or untying, expands into more specific actions or states through contextual highlighting. Examples include jiebang (解绑, ‘unbind’), highlighting removal of constraints, and jiemi, emphasizing revelation of secrets. Metaphor extends categories through conceptual similarity mappings. Metonymy, which operates on the principle of contiguity rather than similarity, shifts meanings to adjacent domains – for example, jieshuo (解说, ‘commentate’) transfers explanatory meanings into sports commentary contexts. Image schema shifts facilitate domain-crossing applications, extending jie beyond physical separations into broader cognitive areas, such as psychological state alterations and relationship dissolutions. Nevertheless, despite these cross-domain extensions, jie consistently maintains its core semantics of separation or release.

Thus, the categorization of jie is dynamic and multifaceted which evolves divergently through multiple linguistic mechanisms and cognitive pathways. Far from being simple linear extensions, these developments pivot around jie’s core meanings, diversifying semantic richness in varied contexts. For example, expressions such as jiedu (解毒, ‘detoxification’) and jiema (解码, ‘decode’) both originate from the prototypical meaning of jie. Through various mechanisms, their meanings have been extended and enriched, representing the dynamic process of categorization and highlighting both the vitality of language and the flexibility of human cognition.

5.4 Dictionary definitions of jie

The earliest depiction of jie appears in oracle bone inscriptions from the Shang dynasty, depicting two hands separating a bull’s horn, thus originally signifying “to separate or dissect.” In seal script, the “horn” (角, jiao) component is shifted to the left, the “hand” (手, shou) is transformed into a “knife” (刀, dao) and placed in the upper right, while the “ox” (牛, niu) is positioned in the lower right. However, the overall meaning of the character remains unchanged. Xu (2018) defines jie as “judgment or division, derived from using a knife to cut a bull’s horn,” symbolizing division and discrimination. Jiang (2006) emphasizes detailed semantic analysis and categorization when researching word meanings. Based on authoritative dictionaries, including Modern Chinese Dictionary (7th edition), Xinhua Dictionary, Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese, and Commonly Used Characters in Classical Chinese, we refine the meanings of jie into essential semantic categories: (1) to untie bound objects; (2) separate; (3) remove; (4) explain; (5) understand; and (6) escort goods or prisoners. Defining the meanings of jie will be helpful to corroborate the identified prototype meaning and ensures that the entire diachronic analysis begins from a verifiable starting point as we mentioned in Methodology.

6.1 The prototypical meaning of jie

Ma (2015) argues that verbs typically denote actions, behaviors, existence, changes, or intentions. We posit that the semantic dynamism of a verb largely corresponds to its degree of transitivity. As mentioned earlier, the Chinese character jie first appeared in Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions, and judging from its ancient form, it clearly possesses a strong dynamic quality.

From Examples (1) and (2), it is evident that in the structure “jie + noun,” when the object is a concrete entity, the meaning of jie prominently foregrounds two key components of its semantic base: the action itself and the patient undergoing this action. Within the framework of the base/profile (Langacker 1987), the semantic base of jie encompasses the entire event of removal, including the agent, the instrument, the object, and the resultant state. What the verb profiles, however, is specifically the interaction between the action and its patient, thereby highlighting transitivity. Both sentences involve distinct agents with strong individuality; specifically, the actions of unbinding armor (解缧, jieluo) and unbuckling one’s sword (解其长剑, jieqi changjian) are swift, deliberate, and goal-oriented. The verb jie, in these contexts, strongly emphasizes the exertion of force and a completed action resulting in tangible consequences. Example (1) stresses that the armor of feudal lords and coverings of soldiers’ weapons were not to be removed, while Example (2) implies that removing swords symbolized acceptance of moral guidance, thereby reducing violence and wrongdoing. Clearly, jie demonstrates a high level of transitivity within the construction “jie + noun (concrete object),” thus marking it as a strongly dynamic verb.

In cognitive linguistics, transitivity is understood not as a simple binary property, but as a continuum describing the degree to which an action is effectively transferred from an agent to a patient (Hopper and Thompson 1980). High transitivity is characterized by features such as a volitional, agentive subject acting upon a concrete, highly affected patient, resulting in a clear change of state. The use of jie in constructions like jieqi changjian (解其长剑, ‘to unbuckle one’s sword’) is an example of high transitivity; a clear agent purposefully acts on a specific object, fundamentally altering its state. This high degree of transitivity is directly linked to its dynamic quality and its status as the prototypical meaning of jie. Such actions represent prototypical events in human cognition – they are salient, physically grounded experiences that serve as cognitive reference points. Because the meaning of jie in the “jie + noun (patient object)” construction so perfectly captures this dynamic, high-transitivity event, it became established as its prototypical sense. Consequently, the basic dictionary definition is typically listed as “to untie something bound or fastened.” As Jiang (2006) points out, during historical semantic evolution, basic meanings gradually extend into derived meanings, some closer to the original, others more distant. Thus, a thorough analysis of jie’s extended meanings must begin with this cognitively foundational, prototypical usage.

6.2 Gradual semantic change of jie

The semantic evolution of jie exhibits conservative gradual change within its semantic category, developing multiple derived meanings primarily from the original core meaning of “separating a bull’s horn with hands,” gradually expanded through varying object types in verb-object constructions without departing from its foundational semantic domain.

7.1 Patient objects: from material to abstract entities

As an intentional action verb, the Chinese character jie typically involves a human agent acting upon an object to produce a change of state. In the historical development of Chinese, the patient object of jie underwent a significant semantic shift from material entities to abstract concepts. This shift reflects both internal linguistic evolution and broader developments in human cognitive modeling.

Zeng (2018) argues that early human conceptualization is rooted in material experience. Abstract and ambiguous notions, such as emotions, mental activities, events, and states, are often metaphorically construed as physical entities in order to make them cognitively accessible. As the patient object of jie transitioned from the physical to the abstract domain, the verb itself developed new interpretive potentials.

In early usage, the object of jie typically referred to concrete entities (e.g. 解鼋 jieyuan, ‘cutting up a softshell turtle’, 解牛, jieniu, ‘butchering an ox’). In Examples (21)–(23), the patient objects are concrete and visible entities. The action of jie directly operates on these physical objects through specific and observable manipulation. In contrast, the examples above involve abstract nouns such as “患” (huan, ‘affliction’), “忧” (you, ‘sorrow’), and “耻” (chi, ‘shame’). These instances reflect a metaphorical mapping in which abstract psychological or social conditions are conceptualized as bounded entities that can be untied, dismantled, or resolved. This metaphorical extension is consistent with theories of embodied cognition, which posit that abstract thought is grounded in sensorimotor experience (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). This shift further implies that interpretations of jie may hinge less on its lexical meaning and more on the grammatical framework it occupies – much like how the English term whole acquires its part-structure sense through the classifier head rather than the word itself (Liao 2015). Consequently, the object of jie shifts from being physically manipulable to representing complex emotional or social conditions.

Compared with removing physical objects, removing abstract ones departs further from the original sense of jie. This shift represents a further extension of its meaning. The transition from the concrete to the abstract not only illustrates the flexibility of linguistic expression but also reveals the essential role of metaphor in human cognitive construction. Therefore, the evolution of patient object types associated with jie reflects not only a natural process of diachronic semantic change but also a concrete manifestation of the interaction between cognitive experience and bodily perception.

7.2 Instrument: from tangible to intangible

Parallel to the abstraction of patient objects, the instrumental tools of jie have undergone a similar shift from tangible tools to intangible cognitive resources. In earlier usages, the instrument associated with jie was typically a physical tool, such as a key in jiesuo (解锁,‘unlocking’). Here, the verb denotes a concrete physical action directly dependent on material implements. Over time, however, jie came to be used with cognitive or linguistic instruments, tools of the mind, such as logic, knowledge, or insight. For instance, in jieti (解题,‘solve a problem’), the action of jie no longer relies on physical manipulation but rather on abstract reasoning or comprehension. This shift has led to two principal semantic developments: (1) the meaning “to explain or analyze a principle verbally,” and (2) “to understand or grasp intuitively.” Examples (24)–(26) illustrate the first semantic development.

In Example (24), Xunzi criticizes the Five Elements theory proposed by Zisi and Mencius as obscure, difficult to comprehend, and logically incoherent. In this case, the implied instrument is verbal competence. Example (25) describes how Confucius responded to contradictions in his statements by offering self-justifications, although these often failed to stand up to scrutiny. The tool in this case is the legitimacy of discourse and the force of logical reasoning. In Example (26), the emphasis falls on the necessity of firsthand experience in interpreting classical texts, as only through such experience can one attain genuine understanding. The tool here consists of direct experience and the capacity for insight.

In all three cases, the tools involved belong to the abstract domain. The semantic range of the verb jie is influenced by its adjacent object, and there is a marked tendency toward abstraction. When the tool functions as the object, a conceptual similarity arises between the concrete and abstract uses of jie. This resemblance forms the basis for metaphor. The agent must use a tool or method to carry out an action. These actions produce either concrete or abstract outcomes. The process also involves physical or cognitive effort on the part of the agent. Based on this parallel, ontological metaphor enables a transition in the meaning of jie: from the tangible to the intangible, and from the concrete to the abstract. The semantics of jie demonstrate interaction and transference between analogous domains, leading to increasing abstraction and generalization. The original concrete sense – physically separating an object – becomes mapped onto an abstract sense, such as analyzing and articulating an argument. As a result, the verb jie comes to highlight interpretive and justificatory meanings, such as explaining and defending.

Examples (27)–(29) illustrate the second semantic pathway – jie as “to understand or grasp intuitively”:

In Examples (27)–(29), the instrument associated with jie remain situated in a highly abstract and intangible domain, manifesting as human cognitive capacities and psychological mechanisms. The semantics of jie further generalize in these contexts to denote “comprehension” or “awareness” of external phenomena.

In Example (27), the phrase “remain unenlightened throughout life” points implicitly to cognitive and perceptual faculties of the individual. What is emphasized here is the subject’s inability to overcome internal psychological or spiritual obstacles, which prevents the attainment of truth. In Example (28), “music” as the object of jie carries inherent abstraction. It refers not only to audible sound but also to the more nuanced realm of musical theory and cultural understanding. Jing Ke’s failure to comprehend is not due to a deficit in auditory perception, but to a lack of knowledge in musical principles and cultural context. This further underscores the shift in jie’s instrument from the concrete toward the domain of abstract cognition. In Example (29), the usage of jie expands its cognitive scope even further. The object here implies a kind of interspecies psychological sensitivity and perceptiveness, belonging to a more complex system of cognition and experiential knowledge. Wang Wuzi’s insight results from long-term observation and accumulated experience. His ability to grasp the disposition of horses is entirely abstract and no longer relies on any physical instrument. This exemplifies a full semantic generalization of jie into the realm of mental activities such as awareness and understanding. These examples illustrate the operation of ontological metaphor, whereby abstract mental states such as confusion, knowledge, or animal cognition are reified and conceptualized as concrete entities that can be unlocked, removed, or grasped.

Through the mechanisms of metaphor, metonymy and image schemas, the Chinese character jie successfully traversed from concrete physical actions to abstract cognitive processes, marking the second stage of its dynamic evolution. While these changes were profound, the character largely retained its status as a lexical verb. The final and most radical stage of its transformation, which the next section addresses, involves decategorization, where jie begins to shed its core lexical meaning and grammaticalize into an auxiliary verb.