Language and Social Transformation in Nyumbantobhu: A Gendered Perspective

1 Introduction

Nyumbantobhu, meaning “house without a man” in the Kuria language, is a traditional union practiced among Kuria women in the Mara Region of Tanzania and Kenya, distinct from romantic or sexual relationships. This arrangement typically involves an older, often widowed woman without male descendants entering into a partnership with a younger, childless woman, known as an omokamööna “daughter-in-law.” The younger woman bears a child with an external male partner, and the elder woman serves as the grandmother to the resulting child, thereby securing her lineage and ensuring the continuation of her family line. In this arrangement, the older woman pays a bride price, usually in the form of cattle, to the family of the younger woman. This practice allows the older woman to maintain control over her property and lineage, as only men are traditionally allowed to inherit property in the Kuria community. Some nascent sources suggest that Nyumbantobhu relationships have become increasingly common, with some younger Kuria women entering these unions potentially to gain greater agency in choosing their sexual partners and to potentially avoid domestic abuse and female genital mutilation.

Nyumbantobhu, a practice among the Kuria people of Tarime and Serengeti in Tanzania, presents a complex interplay of social tradition, gender dynamics, and linguistic expression. (Husso 2016) analysis of interpersonal violence illuminates the underlying vulnerabilities and power imbalances that contribute to the social conditions in which this practice persists. This study moves beyond viewing Nyumbantobhu as a static social custom or a mere passive adaptation to patriarchal structures. While acknowledging the potential for gender-based violence within Nyumbantobhu, as discussed by Sikira (2012), this study builds on Sikira’s work by adding an additional layer of understanding. Building on the concept of agency within seemingly restrictive environments, as demonstrated by Martinez (2018), and acknowledging the complexities of women’s roles hinted at by Opoku (2024), Choge-Kerama, Rono, and Dickerson-Putman (2012), and Choge-Kerama, Rono, and Dickerson-Putman (2021), this research argues that Nyumbantobhu is a dynamic site of contested agency. Grounded in feminist theory and intersectionality, the researcher asserts that Kuria women actively negotiate their roles and identities within these unions, strategically employing language to assert autonomy and subtly challenge traditional power dynamics. Furthermore, drawing on social constructionism (Johnstone 2018), this study posits that Nyumbantobhu is discursively constructed, with language playing a crucial role in shaping its meaning and impact. By analyzing how language functions as a tool to legitimize, challenge, or reinterpret Nyumbantobhu, this research aims to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the lived experiences of Kuria women and the ways in which they navigate and transform social norms.

Existing research on Nyumbantobhu, while acknowledging the practice, often focuses on its potential negative impacts, neglecting the nuanced ways in which Kuria women exercise agency. This study addresses this gap by investigating how women actively negotiate their roles within Nyumbantobhu, particularly through the strategic use of language. “Contested agency,” the concept central to this research, highlights how an individual’s ability to act independently and make their own choices (their “agency”) is often challenged or limited by social structures, power dynamics, and cultural norms. In the context of Nyumbantobhu, this means that while Kuria women possess agency, they face significant challenges and limitations due to the social and cultural context surrounding the practice. Their agency is “contested” because it is not easily or freely exercised; they may need to negotiate, resist, or subvert existing norms and power structures. This study seeks to answer the following central question: What role does language play in the contested agency of Kuria women within Nyumbantobhu?

This study pursues two primary objectives. First, it investigates the contested agency of Kuria women within the practice of Nyumbantobhu. This involves exploring how women actively navigate and negotiate their roles within this complex social context, specifically examining the ways in which they utilize language to assert their agency and shape their experiences. Second, this research analyzes the crucial role of language in constructing the meaning and impact of Nyumbantobhu. This entails examining how language shapes perceptions, reinforces or challenges existing power structures, and influences the lived experiences of women involved in the practice. Furthermore, this analysis considers the intersectional nature of women’s experiences, recognizing that age, marital status, and social class intersect to influence how they engage with Nyumbantobhu and how they are positioned within it. By addressing these two interconnected objectives, the study aims to provide a nuanced and comprehensive understanding of Nyumbantobhu, moving beyond simplistic portrayals and highlighting the dynamic interplay of agency, language, and social construction.

This study has significant implications for several interconnected areas. By moving beyond simplistic portrayals of Nyumbantobhu as solely oppressive, this research offers a more nuanced understanding of the practice, recognizing the agency and resilience of Kuria women and challenging harmful stereotypes. This nuanced understanding is crucial for informing interventions and initiatives aimed at positive social change within the Kuria community, as it moves beyond a deficit model to recognize the strengths and agency of women within the practice. Furthermore, the study’s focus on language provides valuable insights into how social realities are constructed and negotiated, contributing to broader theoretical discussions about the relationship between language, power, and social change within specific cultural contexts. Highlighting the role of language in shaping experiences of agency is particularly important for empowering Kuria women by giving voice to their perspectives and challenging existing power structures. The research will thus be of benefit to Kuria women themselves, the Kuria community as a whole, and to scholars and researchers in fields such as gender studies, linguistics, anthropology, and African studies. Ultimately, the findings have the potential to influence public discourse about Nyumbantobhu, inform policy decisions related to gender equality and social justice, and stimulate further research on the intersection of language, gender, and social change, promoting greater understanding and respect for Kuria culture and the agency of its women.

This paper is structured to address the central argument that Nyumbantobhu is a site of contested agency where women actively negotiate their roles through language. Following this introduction, the literature review examines existing understandings of Nyumbantobhu, highlighting the need for a more nuanced perspective that centers women’s agency. The theoretical framework, which draws on feminist theory, intersectionality, and social constructionism, is outlined. The methodology section describes the qualitative approach employed in this research. The findings section presents evidence supporting the central argument, demonstrating how language functions as a tool for both conformity and subversion. The discussion section explores the implications of these findings, connecting them to broader conversations about gender, language, and social change. The paper concludes by reiterating the significance of understanding Nyumbantobhu as a site of contested agency and suggesting avenues for future research.

2 Backgorund of the Study

Understanding the complex social practice of Nyumbantobhu requires a careful examination of existing scholarship and a robust theoretical framework. The existing literature provides a comprehensive and critical analysis of existing research relevant to the study’s topic, establishing context, identifying gaps, and informing the research design. The Theoretical Framework provides a structured set of concepts, theories, and models that guide the research process, shaping the research questions, methodology, and interpretation of findings. Together, these sections demonstrate the researcher’s understanding of the field and provide the necessary foundation for a rigorous and meaningful investigation.

3 Theoretical Framework

This research employs a multifaceted theoretical framework to explore the complex dynamics of Nyumbantobhu, drawing primarily on feminist theory, intersectionality, and social constructionism. Combined with a detailed linguistic analysis, these frameworks offer a powerful lens for understanding how power, identity, and meaning are constructed and negotiated within this specific practice. Feminist theory, in its various forms, provides a critical framework for examining gender relations and power imbalances. The project focuses on agency, through feminist theory. This approach facilitates an analysis of how Nyumbantobhu impacts women’s lives, how they navigate and potentially resist patriarchal structures, and how they exercise agency within seemingly constrained circumstances. It moves beyond essentialist notions of “womanhood” to recognize the diverse experiences of women within Nyumbantobhu.

4 Methodology

This section details the data collection and analysis process, explaining how the theoretical framework (social constructionism, feminist theory, kinship studies, and intersectionality) guided the research design and analysis.

Recognizing language’s central role in constructing social realities (Berger and Luckmann 1967; Burr, 2015), the researcher focused on the language of Nyumbantobhu. Data collection involved semi-structured interviews conducted in Swahili with women involved in the practice, community members, and local leaders. Relevant texts, such as traditional narratives and songs, were also examined. Following collection, interviews were transcribed verbatim. Discourse analysis, informed by Butler’s (1990) concept of performativity and Johnstone’s (2018) work on language’s productive role, was used to identify key themes, patterns, and linguistic strategies Nyumbantobhu. Specifically, the analysis examined how language constructs and reinforces gender roles within the practice and how it shapes the meaning, impact, and potential for contestation of Nyumbantobhu. For instance, the analysis explored how specific terms, metaphors, or narratives are used to justify, challenge, or negotiate the practice, revealing how language contributes to the ongoing (re)construction of Nyumbantobhu. As an example, several interviewees described Nyumbantobhu using kinship terms like “wife” and “husband,” highlighting the social legitimacy sought through these linguistic choices. This finding corroborated the theoretical framework’s emphasis on the performative nature of language in constructing social realities.

In examining agency, this project aimed to understand Kuria women’s complex exercise of agency within Nyumbantobhu, moving beyond simplistic portrayals of victimhood or resistance (Abu-Lughod 1990; Mohanty 1984). To explore this, interviews delved into women’s experiences, choices, and strategies for navigating the practice. Questions focused on their motivations for participating, perceived benefits and challenges, and relationships with others involved. The analysis focused on identifying instances of agency, both overt and subtle, recognizing that resistance manifests in various forms, including linguistic practices. Specifically, the analysis examined how women use language to negotiate their roles, assert autonomy, and potentially challenge dominant narratives about Nyumbantobhu. For example, the analysis considered how women utilize language to express needs, negotiate the terms of the arrangement, or challenge stigma surrounding the practice. Notably, one participant illustrated this agency by explaining how she used specific proverbs to assert her right to inherit land within her Nyumbantobhu partnership, directly challenging traditional patriarchal norms. This instance exemplifies the power of language in enabling women to exert agency.

Understanding the dynamics of Nyumbantobhu required considering its place within the broader Kuria kinship system, a crucial aspect of kinship and social structures. Data collection involved gathering information about Kuria kinship structures, including family relationships, inheritance patterns, and the roles and responsibilities of different family members. Interviews explored how Nyumbantobhu intersects with existing kinship obligations, inheritance patterns, and gender roles. The analysis drew on Lévi-Strauss’s (1969) work on the elementary structures of kinship to provide a comparative perspective and to understand how Nyumbantobhu is embedded within the social fabric of the Kuria community. The interviews revealed that while Nyumbantobhu partnerships do not replace traditional marriage for women, they offer an alternative pathway to security and social recognition within the existing kinship structure. This finding highlighted the complex interplay between tradition and evolving social practices.

Addressing intersectionality, and recognizing the importance of intersectionality and power (Andersen and Collins 1992; Glenn 1999), I sought to understand the diverse experiences of women within Nyumbantobhu. To ensure a comprehensive understanding, the sample was stratified to include women of different ages, marital statuses, social classes, and potentially other relevant categories within the Kuria context. Interviews were designed to elicit information about how these intersecting identities shape women’s experiences of Nyumbantobhu, including their access to resources, their ability to exercise agency, and their experiences of power. The analysis focused on understanding the nuanced ways in which power operates at the intersection of these multiple social categories, moving beyond essentialist notions of “womanhood.” For example, the findings showed that older women, particularly those who had already experienced traditional marriage, often held more authority and influence within Nyumbantobhu partnerships, reflecting the interplay of age and social status.

Finally, regarding journalistic accounts and scholarly analysis, this research bridges journalistic accounts (e.g., Haworth 2016; Martinez 2018; Thomas 2013) with a more rigorous scholarly analysis. While these journalistic accounts provided valuable, accessible overviews of the Nyumbantobhu practice, often capturing public attention and highlighting key social issues, this research aimed to move beyond those introductory perspectives. The intention was to provide a deeper, more theoretically grounded analysis, drawing on established academic frameworks. These journalistic sources served as a crucial tool for contextualizing the research findings within the broader public discourse surrounding Nyumbantobhu, effectively mapping the landscape of existing conversations and identifying key themes or issues that warranted further investigation. However, the primary focus of the analysis remained firmly on the data collected directly through in-depth interviews and other qualitative methods. This approach allowed for a nuanced and scholarly understanding of Nyumbantobhu, prioritizing the perspectives and lived experiences of Kuria women themselves, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive and insightful examination of the practice.

5 Findings

6 Discussion

This research contributes significantly to understanding Nyumbantobhu, challenging existing narratives and offering a nuanced perspective. Building on work highlighting agency (e.g., Martinez 2018), the researcher argues that Nyumbantobhu is not a passive adaptation to patriarchal structures, but rather a site of contested agency for Kuria women. While operating within constraints, women actively negotiate roles and identities, using language to assert autonomy and challenge traditional power dynamics. This aligns with feminist theory’s emphasis on agency within oppressive systems and intersectionality’s recognition that experiences are shaped by factors like age, marital status, and social class. Language is a key tool in this negotiation, used for both conformity and subversion. Expanding on Johnstone’s (2018) work on language shaping social reality, I posit that Nyumbantobhu is less a static social practice and more a phenomenon discursively constructed through language. The terms, narratives, and everyday conversations surrounding it shape its meaning and impact. This aligns with social constructionism, which views social phenomena as created and given meaning through interaction and language. The analysis explored how language legitimizes, challenges, or reinterprets Nyumbantobhu, revealing its role in maintaining or transforming social norms.

Firstly, Nyumbantobhu is demonstrably a site of contested agency. Contrary to portrayals of Kuria women as passive, the findings reveal their active role in negotiating their positions. Acknowledging patriarchal constraints, women strategically utilize language and other actions to assert autonomy. This aligns with feminist theory and challenges studies like Sikira’s (2012), which focused primarily on negative aspects like gender-based violence. This research offers a more balanced view, recognizing both constraints and agency within Nyumbantobhu. Critically, this contested agency is not fixed, but socially constructed through ongoing interactions and linguistic practices Nyumbantobhu.

Secondly, language plays a central role in constructing Nyumbantobhu. The practice is not a pre-existing social reality, but is discursively created. Analyzing the terms Nyumbantobhu, narratives, and conversations surrounding Nyumbantobhu reveals how language shapes its meaning and impact. It is crucial to accurately represent Johnstone’s (2018) arguments regarding language’s role. This research highlights how language is not merely reflective, but actively productive in shaping social realities. For example, labeling actions or relationships as “Nyumbantobhu” imbues them with specific social meaning, distinguishing them and influencing understanding and experience.

Thirdly, experiences within Nyumbantobhu are profoundly intersectional. The findings reveal diverse experiences shaped by the interplay of age, marital status, and social class. This intersectional lens reveals how power operates, moving beyond essentialist notions of “women” and showing varying degrees of agency and constraint. Younger women, for instance, may face different challenges and opportunities than older women. These categories (age, marital status, social class) are themselves socially constructed, with meanings and implications varying across contexts. Their intersection creates unique experiences, demonstrating the socially constructed nature of realities within Nyumbantobhu.

Fourthly, language functions as a tool for both conformity and subversion within Nyumbantobhu. While some linguistic practices reinforce traditional power dynamics, women also strategically use language to subtly challenge these structures. This nuanced understanding of language use, as discussed by (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet 2013), moves beyond simplistic views of language as either solely oppressive or liberatory. The study reveals the complex and multifaceted nature of language as a site of both resistance and accommodation. This duality of language use directly reflects the social constructionist view that language is not simply a tool for reflecting reality but is actively involved in shaping and negotiating it.

Fifthly, exploring kinship reveals the evolution of kinship terms and its relation to shifting family dynamics. Analyzing how kinship terms have changed within Nyumbantobhu reveals shifts in family structures and gender roles. This connects with Goody’s (1980) work, showing how language reflects and potentially influences changes in social relations, contributing to a deeper understanding of kinship, language, and social change within Nyumbantobhu. These kinship terms are socially constructed, changing over time to reflect evolving relationships.

Finally, the research examines gendered language and the negotiation of power. The study reveals how power relations and social expectations are embedded within linguistic markers, building on Lakoff’s (1975) work on language and gender. By applying this framework to Nyumbantobhu, the study clarifies how gender is performed and negotiated through language within this specific practice. This contributes to a richer understanding of gender dynamics beyond general theories, showing how they operate within this particular cultural context. From a social constructionist perspective, gender itself is not a fixed biological category but is socially constructed and performed through language. The study shows how language is used to construct and reinforce gender roles within Nyumbantobhu, but also how it can be used to challenge and subvert these roles, demonstrating the ongoing negotiation of gender and power through language.

While offering valuable insights, this research has limitations. A key limitation stems from inherent power dynamics within the community. Participants, particularly women in Nyumbantobhu relationships, may not have felt entirely free to share their experiences openly. Several factors could have contributed to this. Firstly, the sensitive nature of the topic itself might have led to self-censorship, as individuals may have been hesitant to share personal details due to concerns about social stigma or repercussions within their community. Secondly, the presence of community leaders or other influential figures during some interviews, while intended to provide context and support, may have inadvertently constrained participants’ willingness to express dissenting or critical views. The hierarchical nature of Kuria society, where respect for elders and authority figures is paramount, could have further amplified this dynamic. Finally, the researcher’s position as outsiders, despite efforts to build rapport and trust, may have created a perceived power imbalance, potentially influencing the narratives. Participants might have felt pressure to present a particular image of Nyumbantobhu, either positive or negative, depending on their perceptions of the researcher’s views.

Restricted narratives challenge the study’s generalizability. While the findings offer valuable insights into the experiences of the women who participated, they may not fully represent the diverse range of perspectives and experiences within the community. Future research could explore alternative data collection methods, such as anonymous surveys or focus groups, to potentially mitigate these limitations and encourage more open and honest dialogue. Furthermore, longitudinal studies that involve sustained engagement with the community could help build deeper trust and potentially facilitate more candid narratives over time. It is also important to acknowledge that the researcher’s interpretations of the interview data are inherently subjective. While every effort was made to analyze the data rigorously and reflexively, the researcher’s own biases and cultural perspectives may have influenced the analysis. Transparency in the research process, including detailed descriptions of the data collection and analysis methods, is crucial for allowing readers to critically evaluate the findings and draw their own conclusions.

This study is deeply rooted in the theoretical framework of social constructionism. Social constructionism posits that social phenomena, including complex practices like Nyumbantobhu, are not simply objective realities but are actively created and given meaning through social interaction and, crucially, language. This theoretical lens emphasizes the powerful role of language, discourse, and shared understandings in shaping our perceptions of the world and the social structures we inhabit. Within the context of Nyumbantobhu, social constructionism provides a crucial framework for understanding how the practice is not merely a set of actions, but is imbued with meaning through the language used to describe it, the narratives told about it, and the ongoing conversations surrounding it. This discussion has explored how our findings illuminate how our findings illuminate how language constructs and shapes the reality of Nyumbantobhu. This demonstrates the theory’s explanatory power in this specific cultural context.

Our findings strongly support the tenets of social constructionism. The research demonstrates how language actively constructs the reality of Nyumbantobhu. For example, the study reveals how the very terms used to describe roles within the practice (e.g., “daughter-in-law,” “grandmother”) are not neutral labels but carry significant cultural weight and contribute to the construction of social identities. The narratives surrounding Nyumbantobhu, often recounted in everyday conversations and oral traditions, further shape its meaning, transmitting and reinforcing social norms and expectations. Moreover, the study shows how language is used to negotiate the legitimacy of Nyumbantobhu, with different actors using language to either uphold or challenge its traditional interpretations. This linguistic activity is not merely reflective of pre-existing social realities; it is actively constitutive of them. The findings suggest that Nyumbantobhu is not a static entity but is constantly.

7 Conclusions

This research fundamentally reshapes understanding of Nyumbantobhu, moving beyond simplistic portrayals to reveal its complexity and dynamism. Contrary to viewing Kuria women as passive, this research demonstrates that Nyumbantobhu is a site of contested agency. Women actively negotiate roles and identities, employing strategic linguistic practices and actions to assert influence, even within patriarchal constraints. Crucially, this work illuminates language’s central role in constructing Nyumbantobhu’s meaning. Social constructionism reveals that language actively shapes perceptions and understandings of Nyumbantobhu, rather than merely reflecting social reality.

This research also highlighted the intersectional experiences within Nyumbantobhu, shaped by factors like age, marital status, and social class. Moving beyond essentialist notions of “women,” the findings reveal power’s diverse operation within this context. Moreover, it demonstrated language’s dualistic role as a tool for both conformity and subversion. Women strategically utilize language to adhere to certain norms while simultaneously challenging others, revealing linguistic practice’s complexity as a site of both resistance and accommodation.

Additionally, the evolving landscape of kinship terms and shifting family dynamics within Nyumbantobhu was also explored. Analyzing how language reflects and influences social relations illuminated cultural practices’ dynamism. The examination of gendered language revealed how power relations and social expectations are embedded within linguistic markers, demonstrating gender’s performative nature within this context. Integrating feminist theory, intersectionality, social constructionism, and linguistic analysis, this research provides a deeper, more nuanced understanding of Nyumbantobhu.

In conclusion, this research contributes significantly to Nyumbantobhu literature by demonstrating the need to move beyond static interpretations of cultural practices. It has revealed the dynamic interplay of agency, language, and social construction in shaping women’s experiences and challenging established power structures. Beyond Nyumbantobhu’s specific context, this research advances broader scholarly conversations about gender, language, and social change, offering valuable insights into how these elements interact to shape social realities. This research underscores the importance of nuanced, context-specific analyses in understanding complex social phenomena.