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Effect of weld metal composition on impact toughness properties of shielded metal arc welded ultra-high hard armor steel joints

  • V. Balaguru , Visvalingam Balasubramanian EMAIL logo and P. Sivakumar
Published/Copyright: December 31, 2020
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Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials
From the journal Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials Volume 29 Issue 1

Abstract

Nowadays, ultra-high hard armor (UHA) steels are employed in armor tracked vehicle (ATV) construction because of their high hardness, high strength to weight ratio, and excellent toughness. UHA steels are usually welded using austenitic stainless steel (ASS) welding consumables, to avoid hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC). The use of ASS consumables to weld the above steel was the only available remedy because of higher solubility of hydrogen in the austenitic phase. In this investigation, an attempt was made to investigate the effect of ASS consumables (with different Creq/Nieq ratio) on solidification mode, impact toughness and microstructural characteristics of shielded metal arc (SMA) welded UHA steel joints. The welded joints were characterised based on impact toughness properties, hardness, and microstructural features. As the ferrite number increases with an increase in Creq/Nieq ratio result in different solidification mode (A, FA, F). It is also found that ferrite number of weld metal has appreciable influence on impact toughness and has inversely proportional relationship with impact toughness of the welded joints.

Keywords: ultra-high hard armor steel; shielded metal arc welding process; austenitic stainless steel; Creq/Nieq ratio; ferrite number; impact toughness

1 Introduction

Currently, armor steel plates, closely confirming with AISI 4340 specifications, are principally used in construction of armor tracked vehicles (ATVs). These grade steels are employed in Hull and Turret structures of the ATVs, These grade steels are classified under high hardness (hardness is ~400 BHN) and high strength (yield strength is ~1100 MPa) steels category. The problems normally encountered during welding of this steel are hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) and, heat affected zone (HAZ) softening [1]. However, they are welded, now-a-days, using gas metal arc welding (GMAW), shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW) processes using austenitic and ferritic consumables. Though these grade steels are meeting all the requirements (as per the military standards) satisfactorily, the mobility of the fighting vehicles in all terrains is of significant importance due to higher overall weight of the vehicles. This concern is forcing the design engineers and fabrication engineers to think about reducing the overall weight of the futuristic ATVs.

The development of ultra-high hard (Hardness ~450 BHN) and ultra-high strength (Yield Strength ~1200 MPa) armor steel plates by controlling heat treatment methods and varying alloying elements paved way for the improvement in level of protection against the projectile attack on the ATVs. However, these grades of steel plates are used as frontal protection plates only in these vehicles [2]. Ferritic and austenitic joints are a popular dissimilar metal combination used in defense applications [3].Welding of these grade steels are challenging one due to the existence of higher carbon content (close to 0.47 wt%) and higher carbon equivalent number (close to 0.8). These steels are more susceptible to HIC and HAZ softening. HIC can occur at various positions in the weldment based on the degree of restraint and the elemental composition of base metal and weld metal. The ability of hydrogen to decrease the tensile properties of steel is well known. The evolvement of embrittlement, cold cracking and porosity related issues are associated with the dissolution of hydrogen in molten metal during welding [4].

The three methods of controlling HIC in quenched and tempered (Q&T) steel welds are: (i) temperature control method, (ii) isothermal transformation method and (iii) the utilization of austenitic stainless-steel (ASS) consumables. The method of temperature control relies on holding the welded joint at elevated temperature at which diffusion of hydrogen is accelerated. The method of isothermal transformation eliminates HIC by controlling the HAZ cooling rate so that it transforms to the softer non martensitic structure. Also, it is not feasible to use the temperature of preheating greater than 150∘C during welding of Q&T steel. Hence the method of temperature control is highly limited, and the method of isothermal transformation can therefore not be used in practical applications. The only option is to use welding consumables that virtually preclude the hydrogen being introduced in the HAZ and produce hydrogen-insensitive weld metal.

Madhusudhan Reddy et al. [5] studied the weldability of a high-strength low-alloy steel using different ASS fillers (18-8-6 and E 309L) and reported that the yield strength of 18-8-6 weld deposit was superior than that for the 309L. Madhusudhan Reddy et al. [6] investigated the susceptibility of low alloy steel to cold cracking using ASS and high nickel steel (HNS) fillers and reported that the HNS fillers offered better resistance to HIC than ASS fillers. This was attributed to the fact that there was no white phase formation as observed in the ASS weldment. Rao et al. [7] investigated the influence of welding processes on fatigue crack growth behaviour of low alloy high strength Q&T steel cruciform joints fabricated using ASS consumables. Long streaks of δ-ferrite in austenite matrixwere found in case of SMA-weld metal which seemed to have lowered the resistance to the fatigue crack propagation. In case of FCA-weld metal, a discontinuous network of δ-ferrite evolved in the austenitic matrix led to slower fatigue crack propagation.

An attempt was made by Magudeeswaran et al. [8] to investigate the influence of welding consumables on tensile strength and ductility of high strength, Q&T steel joints. ASS, LHF andHNS consumables were employed to fabricate Q&T steel joints by SMAW process. The results indicated that the joints produced using low hydrogen ferrite (LHF) steel electrodes revealed superior tensile properties than the joints made using ASS and HNS consumables. The same authors [9] studied the effects of welding consumables to determine the dynamic fracture toughness of welded armor steel joints. For the welding of armor-grade Q&T steels, ASS, LHF and HNS consumables were employed. The usage of such consumables in the armor grade Q&T steel welding contributed in the evolvement of different microstructures in the respective welds and had significant effect on the dynamic fracture toughness. It was found that the dynamic fracture toughness values of the joints made with HNS consumable were superior to ASS and LHF joints [10].

The above literature review has revealed that the published technical papers on welding of amour grade steels could be counted with fingers. Hence in this study, an attempt was made to study the effect of ASS consumables (having different Creq/Nieq) on impact toughness properties of UHA steel joints fabricated using SMAW process.

2 Experimental work

The parent metal (PM) used in this examination was 15 mm thick rolled UHA steel plates. The microstructure of PM exhibits tempered martensite in the ferrite matrix (Figure 1). This tempered martensite structure derive its high temperature strength from the phase transformation induced dislocation sub-structure [11]. The plates were cut into the necessary dimensions (300×150 mm) by abrasive cutter (as shown in Figures 2 and 3), and welded the joints by SMAW process. The joint configuration was attained by using tack welding. The welding was done normal to the rolling direction. To avoid distortion, necessary clamping was provided. Five ASS electrodes, having different chemical compositions, were used to weld the joints. The base metal chemical composition and welding electrodes are presented in Table 1. The Creq and Nieq calculated using standard equations for each electrode and the values are given in Table 2 along with joint notations. The important parameters used for welding the joints are presented in Table 3.

Figure 1 Scanning electron micrograph of base metal
Figure 1

Scanning electron micrograph of base metal

Figure 2 Joint configuration and welding sequence used in this investigation
Figure 2

Joint configuration and welding sequence used in this investigation

Figure 3 Scheme of Extraction and Specimen Dimensions (in mm)
Figure 3

Scheme of Extraction and Specimen Dimensions (in mm)

Table 1

Chemical composition (wt%) of base metal and welding electrodes used in this investigation

MaterialCSiMnCrMoNiPSCuFe
Base Metal0.3150.2390.541.250.521.250.0180.009-Bal
E310-160.1050.4412.00927.630.14120.310.0260.0080.233Bal
E307-160.0490.5445.50219.430.15119.2590.0250.0040.211Bal
E309-160.0420.6161.67223.270.17112.530.0190.0050.159Bal
E308-160.0260.9051.10190.1459.4120.0270.0110.188Bal
E307-260.0600.5601.2020.892.3809.0200.0240.0120.251Bal
Table 2

Joint notations and Creq and Nieq values of welding electrodes

Electrode SpecificationJoint NotationCreqNieqCreq/Nieq
AWS-E310-16ASS128.4324.461.16
AWS-E307-16ASS220.4213.481.51
AWS-E309-16ASS324.4614.631.67
AWS-E308-16ASS420.5010.741.90
AWS-E307-26ASS524.1111.422.11
Table 3

Welding parameters used to fabricate the joints

ParametersUnitASS1ASS2ASS3ASS4ASS5
Electrode specificationAWS E310-16307-106309-16308L-16307-26
Electrode polarity–DCEPDCEPDCEPDCEPDCEP
Welding position–1G1G1G1G1G
Preheat temperature∘C200200200200200
Interpass temperature∘C150150150150150
Electrode baking temp∘C200200200200200
For root pass welding
Electrode diametermm3.163.163.163.163.16
Welding currentA9090909090
Arc voltageVolts2424242424
Welding Speedmm/min250250245240235
For filling pass welding
Electrode diametermm44444
Welding currentA132142148145130
Arc voltageV2323232323
Welding speedmm/min270265275260285
Average heat input/passkJ mm−10.920.950.960.981.02

After welding, the beads were flushed off and then sliced by wire-cut electric discharge machining (WEDM) process. Charpy impact specimens were extracted from the joints to evaluate the toughness of the WM according to standard ASTM E23G06 [12]. Impact test was conducted at room temperature using pendulum type impact testing machine with a maximum capacity of 300 J. Three specimens were tested, and the average values are considered for discussion. Vickers microhardness testing machinewas employed for measuring the hardness with load of 1 Kg.

The microstructure of the joint was analysed at various locations using optical microscope. Aquaregia was used as etchant to reveal the microstructure of the WM region. The specimens were etched with 2 vol.% nital reagents to reveal the microstructures of PM and HAZ regions. The fractured surface of the impact specimen was analysed using a scanning electron microscope at a higher magnification to study the nature of fracture. The dilution of the base metal was analysed using SEM-EDAX line scan taken across the weld metal (WM) and base metal.

3 Results

3.1 Impact toughness properties

The impact toughness properties of the welded joints are shown in Table 4. The results show that the impact toughness decreases with an increase of Creq/Nieq ratio of weld metal. The base metal impact energy is 42 J. The maximum impact energy was absorbed by ASS1 joint (98 J) and lowest impact energy was absorbed by ASS5 joint (66 J).The ASS4 joint shows 41% more toughness than the PM and ASS3 joint shows 25% more toughness than the PM but ASS1 joint shows 42% higher impact toughness than the PM. The photographs of impact test specimens are shown in Figure 4 before and after testing. After testing the fracture surface was captured using SEM and the images are shown in Figure 5. The mode of failure in the BM and the joints are ductile with micro void coalescence in all cases. There is an appreciable difference in the size of the dimples with respect to the welded joints. The fractographs of final failure region, it is observed that the tear dimples are elongated along the loading direction [13]. From the fracture surface morphology of the ASS1 joint exhibits smaller dimples than ASS2, ASS3 and ASS5 joints. The dimple size exhibits a directly proportional relationship with the strength and ductility, i.e. if the dimple size is finer, then the strength and ductility of the respective joint is higher.

Table 4

Impact toughness of the joints at Room Temperature

Impact toughness (J)Creq/Nieq ratio
Base metal42-
ASS1981.16
ASS2891.51
ASS3781.67
ASS4711.90
ASS5662.11
Figure 4 Photographs of Impact Test Specimen
Figure 4

Photographs of Impact Test Specimen

Figure 5 Fracture surface of impact toughness tested specimen
Figure 5

Fracture surface of impact toughness tested specimen

From the impact toughness results, it is inferred that the increasing Creq/Nieq in weld metal the impact toughness is reducing. To understand the variation in the impact toughness of these five joints, weld metal region was characterised using microhardness measurement, microstructure analysis, chemical composition of the weld metal, ferrite content inweld metal were evaluated and results are presented in following sections.

3.2 Microstructure

Microstructural analysis was performed at different region of the welded joints and it is known that weldments consist of three important regions (i) weld metal (WM), (ii) coarse grain heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) and (iii) fine grain heat-affected zone (FGHAZ). Various regions of weldments captured using OM are picturized in Figure 6. Figure 6a shows optical macrograph of weld cross-section and Figure 6b shows the micrograph of the interface (WM and HAZ) of ASS5 joint. It reveals coarse untempered martensite towards HAZ from fusion line, and presence of type II boundary normal to fusion line towards the WM. These boundaries do not have any continuity and these boundaries are more prone to HIC than type I boundaries which are perpendicular to fusion line. While welding ferritic steel (base metal) using austenitic consumables, this sudden change of composition and microstructure across fusion line shows formation of martensitic band in fusion line [14]. In all the joints, very close to fusion line, the FGHAZ are observed (Figure 6c). These FGHAZ invariably of hardened region of untempered martensite in the joints. Away from the fusion line, towards the FGHAZ, the CGHAZ are observed (Figure 6d) in all the joints. CGHAZ reveal untempered martensite in the joints. Since the heat input during fabrication of joints remains same (0.9 to 1.0 kJ/mm), irrespective of welding consumables used, there is no appreciable variation observed in microstructure of CGHAZ and FGHAZ in all the joints.

Figure 6 Optical micrographs of various regions of welded joint
Figure 6

Optical micrographs of various regions of welded joint

The WM of the joints shows delta ferrite of different morphologies in the plain austenitic matrix (Figure 7). However, delta ferrite can be differentiated as lathy or lacy, vermicular, acicular and globular morphologies. The WM of ASS1 joint consists of globular type delta ferrite in plain austenite matrix. The WM of ASS2 and ASS3 joints show vermicular type delta ferrite in the plain austenite matrix. The WM of ASS4 joint reveals lacy ferrite morphology in plain austenite matrix. However, the WM of ASS5 joint reveals a mixed morphology of both vermicular and globular delta ferrite in the plain austenite matrix. The evolution delta ferrite in the plain austenite matrix is primarily because of the presences of alloying component (Fe, Cr and Ni). Since, Fe, Cr and Ni have tendency to segregate in the intergranular and interdendritic locations and this produces columnar structure [15].

Figure 7 Optical micrographs of base metal and weld metal regions of welded joints
Figure 7

Optical micrographs of base metal and weld metal regions of welded joints

3.3 Microhardness

From the microstructure analysis, it is very clearly understood that the welded joints are having four different regions in transverse direction such as WM, FGHAZ, CGHAZ and PM. The hardness was measured at 10 different locations of each region and the average values are presented in Table 5.

Table 5

Average microhardness (HV0.5) values of various regions of welded joints

JointWMCGHAZFGHAZBM
ASS1212689796602
ASS2226663782602
ASS3238654779605
ASS4251635776606
ASS5273621751610

From the microhardness results, following inferences can be derived: (i) The weld metal hardness is the lowest compared to all other regions, irrespective of welding consumables used; (ii) The hardness of FGHAZ is the highest compared to all other regions, irrespective of welding consumables used; (iii) The hardness of CGHAZ is lower than FGHAZ and BM in all the joints and it suggests that CG-HAZ has undergone softening due to thermal cycle; (iv) The ASS5 joint recorded highest WM hardness and ASS1 joint recorded lowest WM hardness; (v) The hardness variation is not enormous in both FGHAZ and CGHAZ and there is a marginal difference is observed in these regions; (vi) The hardness is varying between 620-640 HV in FGHAZ and is varying between 425-450 HV in CGHAZ.

The lowest hardness of weld metal region is one of the reasons for the failure of all the joints at weld metal, irrespective of welding consumables used. However, the variations in weld metal composition have influence on weld metal hardness and subsequently on tensile properties of the welded joints.

3.4 Weld metal composition

The chemical composition of the weld metal (after welding) was also measured and is listed in Table 6. An appreciable change in composition was understood in WM (Table 6) compared to the all WM composition (Table 1) and this is mainly because of dilution of PM in weld metal due to welding. Weld metal compositions presented in Table 6 was utilized to compute the Chromium equivalent and (Creq) and Nickel equivalent (Nieq) of diluted weld metal using following expressions [16] and shown in Table 7.

Table 6

Chemical composition (wt%) of diluted weld metals (after welding)

JointCSiMnCrMoNiPSCuFe
ASS10.1130.5762.2025.330.13118.360.0310.0120.183Bal
ASS20.0700.5375.9116.980.21519.030.0270.0040.211Bal
ASS30.0860.6221.5320.050.15511.060.0240.0070.126Bal
ASS40.0630.7751.1017.110.0388.250.0250.0080.039Bal
ASS50.1000.5711.5218.022.038.010.0260.0100.248Bal
Table 7

Creq and Nieq values and ferrite number of diluted weld metals (after welding)

Joint NotationCreqNieqCreq/NieqFerrite Number
ASS126.32522.8501.151
ASS218.00514.0851.283
ASS321.13814.4051.479
ASS418.31010.6901.7113
ASS520.90611.7701.7826
(1)Creq=Cr%+Mo%+0.7XNb%
(2)Nieq=Ni%+35XC%+20XN%+0.25XCu%

Ferrite Number (FN) of the weld metal was measured using ferrite-scope and presented in Table 7. It provides the information about amount of delta ferrite present in the diluted weld metal. From the Ferrite Number results, following inferences can be derived: (i) The ratio between Creq and Nieq is having directly proportional relationship with the Ferrite Number, i.e., if the Creq/Nieq of weld metal is lower, then the weld metal is having lower ferrite number and vice versa; (ii) ASS1 joint recorded the lowest ferrite number compared to all other joints due to lower Creq/Nieq value; (iii) ASS5 joint recorded the highest ferrite number compared to all other joints due to higher Creq/Nieq value.

4 Discussion

4.1 Effect of Creq/Nieq on weld metal microstructure

The occurrence of ferrite microstructure in weld metal gives both strength and ductility. This ferrite structure is very much desirable in all the welded structures as they have relatively higher hardness and strength. The tendency for the steel to solidification crack during cooling reduces by ferrite [17]. It was described that cracks initiate preferentially along with the austenite-delta ferrite interface and high delta ferrite leads to the elongation loss [18].

In a typical multilayer SMAW process for the joining of UHA steels with the aid of ASS electrodes, the constituent of the fusion zone is the primary contributor that determines the solidification mode as well as the microstructure in the weld metal. The nucleation and retention of δ-ferrite in the inter-dendritic region of austenite are affected by the inter-pass temperature, heat input and the welding speed. The solidus and solvus line in the Fe-Cr-Ni system that is mostly controlled by the Ni and Cr diffusion. Hence, the weld metal Creq/Nieq ratio is modified due to the diffusion of Cr and Ni in the weld metal from the base metal. The Creq/Nieq plays a significant role in the solidification mode (fully A mode, FA mode, F mode) which determines the weld metal end microstructure [19].

Hence, if the Creq/Nieq ratio is very less (1.1 to 1.2) then the tendency of hot cracking in the weld metal is significantly more. The microstructure of the ASS1 joint fabricated using AWS E310-16 electrode shows a fine crack in the weld metal which is attributed to lower Creq/Nieq ratio. A small amount of delta ferrite (globular shape grain boundary) doesn’t pin the migrated gain boundary (MGB) into sinuous. Sinuous pattern (Vermicular, Lacy) occurs in the other joints fabricated, which result in pinning of MGB. Therefore, the use of electrodes with lower Creq/Nieq ratio has to be strictly avoided to obtain sound weld joints.

From the microstructure analysis (Figure 6 and 7), three different ferrite morphologies have been identified in the weld metal region such as vermicular, lacy, and globular. The composition of the weld metal expressed as a ratio of chromium to nickel equivalents (Creq/Nieq) is one of the major factors determining the ferrite content in the weld metal [20]. Vermicular ferrite morphology was detected in weld metal deposited using ASS consumables having lower level of Creq/Nieq, i.e., 1.1 to 1.4 (ASS1 and ASS2 joints). Lacy ferrite morphology was detected in weld metal deposited using ASS consumables having medium level of Creq/Nieq, i.e., 1.4 to 1.7 (ASS3 and ASS4 joints). Globular morphology was observed in weld metal deposited using ASS consumables having higher level of Creq/Nieq, i.e. 1.7 and above (ASS5 joint).

The dilution of Cr from the base metal to weld metal changes the weld metal composition due to which ferrite number changes in the weld metal. If the Cr is greater than 17-18 wt%, there is more susceptibility for the evolvement of sigma phase (Fe2Cr) which is a Cr rich phase. Since this phase is harder and brittle, it significantly reduces the ductility and toughness. The increase in ferrite number is maintained by increase in Creq since Cr is a ferrite stabilizer. Hence, as the Creq/Nieq increases, there is an increase in the weld metal hardness. The ASS5 joint fabricated using AWS E307-26 (special grade) shows higher weld metal hardness and this may be due to higher Creq/Nieq compared to the other joints.

4.2 Effect of ferrite number on impact toughness properties

From the impact toughness results, it is evident that the impact toughness of the welded joints is superior to unwelded base metal. This is mainly due to the use of ASS electrodes to fabricate the welded joints to avoid HIC. However, ASS1 joints exhibited higher impact toughness than other joints. These differences in impact toughness properties of welded joints are mainly controlled by the Creq and Nieq of weld metal, i.e., ferrite numberas discussed in the proceeding section.

In this investigation, an attempt has been made to relate the impact toughness of welded joints with the ferrite number of diluted weld metal as shown in Figure 8. From the graphs, it is inferred that the impact toughness of welded UHA steel joints are having inversely proportional relationship with the ferrite number of diluted weld metal. As the ferrite number increases, ferrite content in the weld metal increases. The delta ferrite is more brittle in nature compared to austenite phase and hence the impact toughness decreases.

Figure 8 Effect of Ferrite Number on impact toughness
Figure 8

Effect of Ferrite Number on impact toughness

In Figure 8 and 9, the data points are connected with a straight line by best fit line method. These straight lines are governed by following linear equations.

Figure 9 Effect of Ferrite Number on WM Hardness
Figure 9

Effect of Ferrite Number on WM Hardness

(3)IT={96.96−1.92(FN)}J
(4)WMH={210.34+3.43FN}HV0.5

These equations can be effectively used to predict the impact toughness and weld metal hardness of the UHA steel joints welded using ASS consumables, if ferrite number of the diluted weld metal is known at 95% confidence level.

5 Conclusions

In this investigation, impact toughness properties of shielded metal arc welded ultra-high hard armor steel joints fabricated using five different ASS electrodes were evaluated. The following conclusions are derived from this investigation,

  1. Highest impact toughness of 98J was exhibited by the joint fabricated using E310-16 electrode. This may be due to the formation of vermicular type delta ferrite in the plain austenite matrix in the weld metal region.

  2. Lowest impact toughness of 66J was exhibited by the joint fabricate using E307-26 electrode. This may be due to formation of both vermicular and globular delta ferrite in the plain austenite matrix in the weld metal region.

  3. The impact toughness of SMA welded UHA steel joints using ASS consumables are having inversely proportional relationship with ferrite number of weld metal region. As ferrite number of weld metal increases, the impact toughness in welded joint decreases.

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Acknowledgement

The authors wish to record their sincere thanks to the Directorate of Extramural Research & Intellectual Property Rights (ERIPR), Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO), Ministry of Defence, Government of India, New Delhi and Research Innovation Centre (RIC), DRDO, Chennai for the financial support rendered through a R&D project no: EPIR/EP/RIC/2016/1/M/01/1630. The authors are grateful to the Director, Combat Vehicles Research & Development Establishment (CVRDE), DRDO, Avadi, Chennai for providing base materials to carry out this investigation.

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Received: 2020-10-01
Accepted: 2020-12-17
Published Online: 2020-12-31

© 2020 V. Balaguru et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2020-0019
Keywords for this article
ultra-high hard armor steel; shielded metal arc welding process; austenitic stainless steel; Creq/Nieq ratio; ferrite number; impact toughness
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
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  6. Behavior and properties of tin slag polyester polymer concrete confined with FRP composites under compression
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