Abstract
Second responders, defined as comprising trained municipal employees, government organizations, the military, construction workers, nonprofits, and untrained volunteers, play vital roles in disaster response. They assist by distributing supplies, clearing debris, providing shelter, and offering medical and psychological support. While first responders have been widely studied and celebrated as heroes, second responders have received limited scholarly attention despite their significant contributions. This article employs emergent norm theory and the altruistic community model to examine how second responders participate in emergency management. It examines three purposely selected major disasters – the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Hurricane Katrina, and Hurricane Sandy – to illustrate the roles and importance of second responders. Findings reveal that, although negative behaviors such as role abandonment and looting can occur, disaster situations often foster emergent norms that create altruistic communities, motivating volunteerism among second responders. The study emphasizes that emergency management agencies should cultivate a culture of volunteering and educate communities about the value of sharing their human capital and committing to doing so well in advance of disasters striking. By doing so, communities can strengthen their resilience and ensure effective collaboration between first and second responders during crises.
-
Conflict of Interest: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
-
Research Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
References
Aguirre, B. E., D. Wenger, and G. Vigo. 1998. “A Test of the Emergent Norm Theory of Collective Behavior.” Sociological Forum 13: 301–20. Kluwer Academic Publishers-Plenum Publishers.10.1023/A:1022145900928Search in Google Scholar
Ahmadu, A. S., J. Nukpezah, P. French, and C. Menifield. 2024. “Disasters and Social Vulnerability Determinants of Federal Subsidiarity Assistance.” Public Administration Review 84 (1): 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13671.Search in Google Scholar
Ali, S. F. 2016. Governing Disasters; Engaging Local Populations in Humanitarian Relief. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781316227008Search in Google Scholar
Amadeo, K. 2020. “Hurricane Katrina Facts, Damage, and Costs: What Made Katrina So Devastating.” In The Balance. https://www.thebalance.com/hurricane-katrina-facts-damage-and-economic-effects-3306023 (accessed October 13, 2025).Search in Google Scholar
American Public Power Association. n.d.-a. “Disaster Planning and Response.” https://www.publicpower.org/disaster-planning-and-response.Search in Google Scholar
American Public Power Association. n.d.-b. “Federal and State Resource Guide for Public Power Preparedness and Emergency Response.” https://www.publicpower.org/system/files/documents/Federal-and-State-Resource-Guide-for-Public-Power-Preparedness-and-Emergency-Response.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
American Red Cross. 2002. “September 11: The American Red Cross Response.” https://www.redcross.org.Search in Google Scholar
Ancelet, B. J. M., M. Gaudet, and C. Lindahl. 2013. Second Line Rescue: Improvised Responses to Katrina and Rita, 3306023. Univ. Press of Mississippi.10.14325/mississippi/9781617037962.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Arterberry, L. M., and J. Nukpezah. 2025. “Resiliency in the Jackson Water Crisis: Investigating the Roles of Social Vulnerability and US Federal Subsidiarity Assistance.” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy. https://doi.org/10.1002/rhc3.12295.Search in Google Scholar
Arthur, M. L. 2013. “Emergent Norm Theory.” The Wiley‐Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements: 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470674871.wbespm432.pub2.Search in Google Scholar
Barsky, L. E., J. Trainor, M. Torres, and B. Aguirre. 2007. “Managing Volunteers: FEMA’s Urban Search and Rescue Programme and Interactions with Unaffiliated Responders in Disaster Response.” Disasters 31 (4): 495–507. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2007.01021.x.Search in Google Scholar
Brennan, M. A., R. Barnett, and C. Flint. 2005. “Community Volunteers: The Front Line of Disaster Response.” Journal of Volunteer Administration 23 (4): 52–6.Search in Google Scholar
Brennan, M. A., and C. Flint. 2007. “Uncovering the Hidden Dimensions of Rural Disaster Mitigation: Capacity Building Through Community Emergency Response Teams.” Journal of Rural Social Sciences 22 (2): 111–26.Search in Google Scholar
Bucci, S., D. Inserra, J. Lesser, M. Mayer, J. Spencer, B. Slattery, et al.. 2013. After Hurricane Sandy: Time to Learn and Implement the Lessons in Preparedness, Response, and Resilience, Vol. 144. The Heritage Foundation. https://www.heritage.org/homeland-security/report/after-hurricane-sandy-time-learn-and-implement-the-lessons-preparedness.Search in Google Scholar
Burby, R. J. 2006. “Hurricane Katrina and the Paradoxes of Government Disaster Policy: Bringing About Wise Governmental Decisions for Hazardous Areas.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 604 (1): 171–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716205284676.Search in Google Scholar
Bynum, T., H. Urby, and A. Simental. 2023. “Professionals and Volunteers in Non-profit Organizations: Understanding their Vital Role and Impact in Emergency Management.” In The Distributed Functions of Emergency Management and Homeland Security, edited by D. McEntire, 134–57. Chicago: CRC Press.10.4324/9781003350729-9Search in Google Scholar
Carafano, J. 2017. “Preparing Responders to Respond: The Challenges to Emergency Preparedness in the 21st Century.” https://www.heritage.org/homeland-security/report/preparing-responders-respond-the-challenges-emergency-preparedness-the.Search in Google Scholar
Carfano, J. 2003. Preparing Responders to Respond: The Challenges to Emergency Preparedness in the 21st Century. Report Homeland Security. Washington, D.C., USA: The Heritage Foundation.Search in Google Scholar
Carr, J., and J. Jensen. 2015. “Explaining the Pre-disaster Integration of Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs).” Natural Hazards 77 (3): 1551–71.10.1007/s11069-015-1664-3Search in Google Scholar
CBS. 2012. “Hurricane Sandy Rescue Missions.” https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/hurricane-sandy-rescue-missions/.Search in Google Scholar
City of Chicago. 2024. “Chicago Department of Public Health, Medical Reserve Corps.” https://www.chicago.gov/city/en/depts/cdph/provdrs/emergency_preparedness/supp_info/medical-reserve-corps.html.Search in Google Scholar
City of New York. 2022. “Ten Years After Sandy: Office of the New York City Comptroller Brad Lander.” (nyc.gov) https://comptroller.nyc.gov/reports/ten-years-after-sandy/.Search in Google Scholar
Clinton, Hillary. 2007. Senator Clinton Introduces “Second Responder” Legislation to Train and Integrate Construction Workers in Disaster Response Efforts. https://votesmart.org/public-statement/313578/senator-clinton-introduces-second-responder-legislation-to-train-and-integrate-construction-workers-in-disaster-response-efforts#.WQ_Mwvnytpg.Search in Google Scholar
Congress.Gov. 2009. “H.R.652-Skilled Trades Second Responders Act of 2009.” https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/652/text?format=txt.Search in Google Scholar
Council on Foreign Relations. 2021. “The National Guard and U.S. National Security.” https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/national-guard-and-us-national-securityNational.Search in Google Scholar
Decker, S. M., L. Lord, W. Walker, and T. Wittum. 2010. “Emergency and Disaster Planning at Ohio Animal Shelters.” Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 13 (1): 66–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888700903372143.Search in Google Scholar
Dynes, R. R. 1994. Situational Altruism: Toward an Explanation of Pathologies in Disaster Assistance: University of Delaware Disaster.Search in Google Scholar
Feigin, S., G. Owens, and F. Goodyear-Smith. 2014. “Theories of Human Altruism: A Systematic Review.” Annals of Neuroscience and Psychology 1 (1): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.7243/2055-3447-1-5.Search in Google Scholar
Flatt, V. B., and J. Stys. 2013. “Long Term Recovery in Disaster Response and the Role of Non-profits.” Oñati Socio-legal Series 3 (2): 346–62.Search in Google Scholar
Flint, C. G., and J. Stevenson. 2010. “Building Community Disaster Preparedness with Volunteers: Community Emergency Response Teams in Illinois.” Natural Hazards Review 11 (3): 118–24. https://doi.org/10.1061/asce-nh.1527-6996.0000014.Search in Google Scholar
Fothergill, A., and L. Peek. 2004. “Poverty and Disasters in the United States: A Review of Recent Sociological Findings.” Natural Hazards 32 (1): 89–110. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NHAZ.0000026792.76181.d9.10.1023/B:NHAZ.0000026792.76181.d9Search in Google Scholar
Frasca, D. R. 2010. “The Medical Reserve Corps as Part of the Federal Medical and Public Health Response in Disaster Settings.” Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science 8 (3): 265–71. https://doi.org/10.1089/bsp.2010.0006.Search in Google Scholar
Fritz, C. E. 1961. “Disaster.” In Contemporary Social Problems, edited by R. K. Merton, and R. A. Nisbet, 651–94, Harcourt.Search in Google Scholar
GAO. 2004. “Health Effects in the Aftermaths of the World Trade Center Attack.” GAO. https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-04-1068t.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Gardner, R. O. 2013. “The Emergent Organization: Improvisation and Order in Gulf Coast Disaster Relief.” Symbolic Interaction 36 (3): 237–60. https://doi.org/10.1002/symb.70.Search in Google Scholar
Godschalk, D. R. 2003. “Urban Hazard Mitigation: Creating Resilient Cities.” Natural Hazards Review 4 (3): 136–43.10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2003)4:3(136)Search in Google Scholar
Harris, C., K. McCarthy, E. Liu, K. Klein, R. Swienton, P. Prins, et al.. 2018. “Expanding Understanding of Response Roles: An Examination of Immediate and First Responders in the United States.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15 (3): 534. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030534.Search in Google Scholar
Haski‐Leventhal, D. 2009. “Altruism and Volunteerism: The Perceptions of Altruism in Four Disciplines and their Impact on the Study of Volunteerism.” Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 39 (3): 271–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.2009.00405.x.Search in Google Scholar
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. 2004. “Citizen Response to Disasters: a Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications.” Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12 (3): 98–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0966-0879.2004.00440.x.Search in Google Scholar
Honore, R. L., and R. Martz. 2010. Survival: How Being Prepared can Keep you and Your Family Safe. Atria Books.Search in Google Scholar
Hunt, A. 2016. “Hurricane Sandy and her Lasting Environmental Impacts.” Earth Jurisprudence & Envtl. Just. J. 6: 82. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/earjujo6&div=4&id=&page=.Search in Google Scholar
Jackson, B., D. Peterson, J. Bartis, T. LaTourette, I. Brahmakulam, A. Houser, et al.. 2002. Protecting Emergency Responders: Lessons Learned from Terrorist Attacks. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/www/external/congress/terrorism/phase2/emergency.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Jordan, Elizabeth, and Amy Javernick-Will. 2013. “Indicators of Community Recovery: Content Analysis and Delphi Approach.” Natural Hazards Review 14 (1): 21–8. https://doi.org/10.1061/asce-nh.1527-6996.0000087.Search in Google Scholar
Joshi, P. 2010. Faith-Based and Community Organizations’ Participation in Emergency Preparedness and Response Activities. Institute for Homeland Security Solutions. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-03/fema_faith-communities_desk-study-final-report_1.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Kaniasty, K., and F. Norris. 2004. “Social Support in the Aftermath of Disasters, Catastrophes, and Acts of Terrorism: Altruistic, Overwhelmed, Uncertain, Antagonistic, and Patriotic Communities.” Bioterrorism: Psychological and public health interventions 3: 200–29.Search in Google Scholar
Kendra, J., and T. Wachtendorf. 2006. “The Waterborne Evacuation of Lower Manhattan on September 11: a Case of Distributed Sensemaking.” https://udspace.udel.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/bdcf5f7a-d566-4521-87b5-d39b024b15d8/content.Search in Google Scholar
Koenig, H. G. 2008. In The Wake of Disaster: Religious Responses to Terrorism and Catastrophe. Templeton Foundation Press, 2008.Search in Google Scholar
Kotani, H., and M. Yokomatsu. 2016. “Natural Disasters and Dynamics of “A Paradise Built in Hell”: A Social Network Approach.” Natural Hazards 84: 309–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2432-8.Search in Google Scholar
Landahl, M. 2023. “Role Abandonment in Emergency Response.” In Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, edited by A. Farazmand, 11671–4. Springer.10.1007/978-3-030-66252-3_2916Search in Google Scholar
Leavitt, W. M., J., and Kiefer. 2006. “Infrastructure Interdependency and the Creation of a Normal Disaster: The Case of Hurricane Katrina and the City of New Orleans.” Public Works Management & Policy 10 (4): 306–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087724x06289055.Search in Google Scholar
Lemieux, F. 2014. “The Impact of a Natural Disaster on Altruistic Behavior and Crime.” Disasters 38 (3): 483–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12057.Search in Google Scholar
Lemonik, A. M. M. 2013. Emergent Norm Theory. The Wiley‐Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.Search in Google Scholar
Lindell, M. K., C. Prater, and R. Perry. 2006. Wiley Pathways Introduction to Emergency Management. John Wiley & Sons.Search in Google Scholar
Linsdell, G. 2012. “Catastrophic work/life Balance: Emergency Responder Role Conflict and Abandonment – Implications for Managers.”In Book of Proceedings: Australian & New Zealand Disaster and Emergency Management Conference. Charles Sturt University. https://researchoutput.csu.edu.au/ws/portalfiles/portal/9715962/PID35706postpub.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Marquette, R, M. 2021. “The Citizen-Soldier: America’s Second Responder.” Syracuse Law Review. https://lawreview.syr.edu/the-citizen-soldier-americas-second-responder/.Search in Google Scholar
Marx, G. T., and J. Wood. 1975. “Strands of Theory and Research in Collective Behavior.” Annual Review of Sociology 1: 363–428. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.01.080175.002051.Search in Google Scholar
McEntire, D. A. 2014. “An Evaluation of Risk Management and Emergency Management. Relying on the Concept of Comprehensive Vulnerability Management for an Integrated Perspective.” In Risk Governance: The Articulation of Hazard, Politics and Ecology, 201–10. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.10.1007/978-94-017-9328-5_12Search in Google Scholar
McNally, B. 2014. “Fallen Through the Cracks? the Role of Second Responders in the Christchurch Emergency: A Wellington Perspective.” Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies 18 (1): 9–18.Search in Google Scholar
Miller, D. S., M. Pavelchak, R. Burnside, and D. Rivera. 2008. “Responding to Natural Disasters: An Increased Military Response and its Impact on Public Policy Administration.” In Disaster Management Handbook, 431–44. CRC Press.10.1201/9781420058635.ch20Search in Google Scholar
Millie, A. 2019. “Citizens in Policing: The Lived Reality of being a Police Support Volunteer.” Policing and Society 29 (4): 407–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2018.1451529.Search in Google Scholar
New York Times. 2013. “Remember the Second Responders.” https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/opinion/remember-the-second-responders.html.Search in Google Scholar
Nukpezah, J. 2017. “The Financial and Public Health Emergencies in Flint, Michigan: Crisis Management and the American Federalism.” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy 8 (4): 284–311. https://doi.org/10.1002/rhc3.12117.Search in Google Scholar
Nukpezah, J. 2020. “Social Vulnerability Determinants of Individual Social Capital for Emergency Preparedness.” International Journal of Emergency Management 16 (1): 41–59. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijem.2020.110107.Search in Google Scholar
Nukpezah, JA., and L. M. Arterberry. 2023. “Policy Entrepreneurs and the Advocacy for Vaccination During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Journal of Public Management and Social Policy 30 (1): 46–67.Search in Google Scholar
Nukpezah, J. A., V. Flomo, P. French, and D. Breen. 2024. “Does Public Service Motivation Mediate Public Safety Work’s Effect on Public Sector Employee Job Satisfaction?” Public Organization Review 4 (3): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-024-00763-3.Search in Google Scholar
Nukpezah, J., and I. Soujaa. 2018. “Creating Emergency Prepared households—What Really are the Determinants of Household Emergency Preparedness?” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy 9 (4): 480–504. https://doi.org/10.1002/rhc3.12142.Search in Google Scholar
Paton, D., D. Johnston, and B. Houghton. 1998. “Organisational Response to a Volcanic Eruption.” Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 7 (1): 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653569810206226.Search in Google Scholar
Pewitt, K. 2014. Volunteers in Police Service: A Case Study of a medium-sized Municipal Law Enforcement Agency. The University of Texas at Dallas.Search in Google Scholar
Phillips, B. D., D. M. Neal, and G. R. Webb. 2012. Introduction to Emergency Management. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.10.1201/b14888Search in Google Scholar
RAND Corporation. 2007. “Learning the Lessons of Hurricane Katrina for the U.S. Army (RB-9255).” https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9255.html.Search in Google Scholar
Rivera, J. D., and A. Nickels. 2014. “Social Capital, Community Resilience, and Faith‐Based Organizations in Disaster Recovery: A Case Study of Mary Queen of Vietnam Catholic Church.” Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy 5 (2): 178–211. https://doi.org/10.1002/rhc3.12050.Search in Google Scholar
Sebastian, I. M., and T. Bui. 2009. “Emergent Groups for Emergency response–theoretical Foundations and Information Design Implications.”AMCIS 2009 Proceedings 638.Search in Google Scholar
Sillah, A., J. Nukpezah, F. Kamau, G. Simo, and L. B. Angela. 2020. “The Role of Nonprofits in Disaster Response: An Expanded Model of Cross‐Sector Collaboration.” Public Administration Review 67: 125–42.Search in Google Scholar
Simo, G., and A. L. Bies. 2007. “The Role of Nonprofits in Disaster Response: An Expanded Model of Cross‐Sector Collaboration.” Public Administration Review 67: 125–42.10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00821.xSearch in Google Scholar
Simpson, D, M. 2001. “Community Emergency Response Training (CERTs): A Recent History and Review.” Natural Hazards Review 2 (2): 54–63.10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2001)2:2(54)Search in Google Scholar
Sims, B. 2007. “The Day After the Hurricane’: Infrastructure, Order, and the New Orleans Police Department’s Response to Hurricane Katrina.” Social Studies of Science 37 (1): 111–8.10.1177/0306312706069432Search in Google Scholar
Siripurapu, A., and N. Berman. 2025. “What Does the U.S. National Guard Do?” Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-does-us-national-guard-do.Search in Google Scholar
Sutton, J. 2003. “A Complex Organizational Adaptation to the World Trade Center Disaster: An Analysis of Faith-based Organizations.” In Beyond September 11th: An Account of Post-disaster Research, 405–28.Search in Google Scholar
Sylves, Richard T. 2019. Disaster Policy and Politics: Emergency Management and Homeland Security, 3rd ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.Search in Google Scholar
Tak, S., R. Driscoll, B. Bernard, and C. West. 2007. “Depressive Symptoms Among Firefighters and Related Factors After the Response to Hurricane Katrina.” Journal of Urban Health 84: 153–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-006-9155-1.Search in Google Scholar
Trainor, J, E., and L. Barsky. 2011. A Synthesis of Research on Role Conflict, Role Strain, and Abandonment in Emergency Response. University of Delaware Disaster Research Center. https://udspace.udel.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/3f79d82f-7cdb-492d-8bee-00f7499d4e64/content.Search in Google Scholar
Turner, R. H., and L. M. Killian. 1987. Collective Behavior. Pearson College div.Search in Google Scholar
Twigg, J., and M. Irina. 2017. “Emergent Groups and Spontaneous Volunteers in Urban Disaster Response.” Environment and Urbanization 29 (2): 443–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247817721413.Search in Google Scholar
U.S. Coast Guard. 2005. “Presidential Unit Citation for Hurricane Katrina Response.” https://www.uscg.mil/Portals/0/OurOrganization/auxiliary/awards/PUC_citation0506.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
U.S. Marine Corps. n.d. Publications. https://www.marines.mil/News/Publications.aspx.Search in Google Scholar
Wachtendorf, T., and M. James. 2004. “Considering Convergence, Coordination, and Social Capital in Disasters.” http://udspace.udel.edu/handle/19716/737.Search in Google Scholar
Waugh, W. L.Jr., and G. Streib. 2006. “Collaboration and Leadership for Effective Emergency Management.” Public Administration Review 66: 131–40.10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00673.xSearch in Google Scholar
Webb, G. 2004. “Role Improvising During Crisis Situations.” International Journal of Emergency Management 2 (1): 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijem.2004.005230.Search in Google Scholar
Wenger, D. 1991. Emergent and Volunteer Behavior During Disaster: Research Findings and Planning Implications. Hazard Reduction and Recovery Center, Texas A & M University.Search in Google Scholar
White, House. 2006. “The Federal Response to Hurricane Katrina, Lessons Learned.” http://library.stmarytx.edu/acadlib/edocs/katrinawh.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Whittaker, J., B. McLennan, and J. Handmer. 2015. “A Review of Informal Volunteerism in Emergencies and Disasters: Definition, Opportunities and Challenges.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 13: 358–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2015.07.010.Search in Google Scholar
Wise, Charles R. 2006. “Organizing for Homeland Security after Katrina: Is Adaptive Management What’s Missing?” Public Administration Review 66 (3): 302–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00587.x.Search in Google Scholar
Woskie, S. R., H. Kim, A. Freund, L. Stevenson, B. Park, S. Baron, et al.. 2011. “World Trade Center Disaster: Assessment of Responder Occupations, Work Locations, and Job Tasks.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine 54 (9): 681–95. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20997Search in Google Scholar
© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston