Abstract
A recent innovation in measuring inequality is the incorporation of adjustments to top incomes using data from tax authorities, revealing higher inequality. The thesis of this paper is that the incorporation of estimates of income from illicit financial flows (IFF), reflecting untaxed capital, may be as significant to national inequality – but with greater variation across countries. We propose a method of adjusting national inequality data for illicit flows, and present preliminary results. These estimates suggest that untaxed illicit flows could be as important as (taxed) top incomes to estimates of inequality – highlighting the importance of improving estimates of underlying illicit flows.
ANNEX
Estimates of Palma Ratio and Gini with and without adjustment for Illicit Financial Flows (full sample).
| Country | Year | Original survey | With adjustment | Absolute difference | Relative difference | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Palma | Gini | Palma | Gini | Palma | Gini | Palma | Gini | ||
| Albania | 2005 | 1.301 | 0.162 | 1.333 | 0.164 | −0.032 | −0.002 | −0.024 | −0.011 |
| Albania | 2008 | 1.436 | 0.167 | 1.476 | 0.169 | −0.040 | −0.002 | −0.028 | −0.013 |
| Bangladesh | 2005 | 1.348 | 0.162 | 1.382 | 0.164 | −0.034 | −0.002 | −0.025 | −0.012 |
| Bangladesh | 2010 | 1.272 | 0.156 | 1.347 | 0.161 | −0.075 | −0.005 | −0.059 | −0.029 |
| Belarus | 2002 | 1.108 | 0.147 | 1.725 | 0.182 | −0.616 | −0.036 | −0.556 | −0.242 |
| Belarus | 2004 | 0.908 | 0.129 | 1.538 | 0.170 | −0.630 | −0.041 | −0.694 | −0.321 |
| Belarus | 2005 | 0.986 | 0.137 | 1.551 | 0.172 | −0.565 | −0.035 | −0.573 | −0.257 |
| Belarus | 2006 | 1.025 | 0.141 | 1.710 | 0.181 | −0.685 | −0.041 | −0.668 | −0.289 |
| Belarus | 2007 | 1.041 | 0.141 | 1.958 | 0.193 | −0.917 | −0.052 | −0.881 | −0.371 |
| Belarus | 2008 | 0.955 | 0.133 | 2.081 | 0.198 | −1.126 | −0.065 | −1.180 | −0.488 |
| Belarus | 2009 | 0.990 | 0.136 | 1.788 | 0.184 | −0.798 | −0.049 | −0.806 | −0.358 |
| Belarus | 2010 | 0.982 | 0.136 | 1.653 | 0.177 | −0.671 | −0.041 | −0.683 | −0.305 |
| Belarus | 2011 | 0.918 | 0.130 | 2.116 | 0.200 | −1.198 | −0.070 | −1.305 | −0.540 |
| Benin | 2003 | 1.752 | 0.188 | 1.808 | 0.190 | −0.056 | −0.003 | −0.032 | −0.014 |
| Bhutan | 2007 | 1.684 | 0.186 | 2.541 | 0.220 | −0.856 | −0.034 | −0.508 | −0.184 |
| Bolivia | 2002 | 6.294 | 0.290 | 7.153 | 0.299 | −0.859 | −0.010 | −0.137 | −0.033 |
| Bolivia | 2005 | 5.328 | 0.280 | 5.661 | 0.285 | −0.333 | −0.005 | −0.062 | −0.016 |
| Bolivia | 2006 | 4.882 | 0.273 | 4.964 | 0.274 | −0.082 | −0.001 | −0.017 | −0.005 |
| Bolivia | 2007 | 4.997 | 0.277 | 5.073 | 0.278 | −0.076 | −0.001 | −0.015 | −0.004 |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 2007 | 1.517 | 0.178 | 1.532 | 0.178 | −0.014 | −0.001 | −0.009 | −0.004 |
| Brazil | 2002 | 5.737 | 0.287 | 5.893 | 0.289 | −0.157 | −0.002 | −0.027 | −0.007 |
| Brazil | 2003 | 5.587 | 0.284 | 5.782 | 0.287 | −0.194 | −0.003 | −0.035 | −0.009 |
| Brazil | 2004 | 5.151 | 0.278 | 5.363 | 0.281 | −0.212 | −0.003 | −0.041 | −0.011 |
| Brazil | 2005 | 4.986 | 0.277 | 5.152 | 0.279 | −0.166 | −0.003 | −0.033 | −0.009 |
| Brazil | 2007 | 4.617 | 0.270 | 4.639 | 0.270 | −0.021 | 0.000 | −0.005 | −0.001 |
| Brazil | 2008 | 4.386 | 0.266 | 4.511 | 0.269 | −0.126 | −0.002 | −0.029 | −0.008 |
| Brazil | 2009 | 4.302 | 0.264 | 4.425 | 0.266 | −0.123 | −0.002 | −0.029 | −0.009 |
| Bulgaria | 2003 | 1.071 | 0.143 | 1.437 | 0.166 | −0.366 | −0.023 | −0.342 | −0.162 |
| Bulgaria | 2007 | 0.997 | 0.138 | 1.241 | 0.154 | −0.244 | −0.016 | −0.245 | −0.116 |
| Burkina Faso | 2003 | 1.844 | 0.192 | 1.933 | 0.196 | −0.089 | −0.004 | −0.049 | −0.021 |
| Burkina Faso | 2009 | 1.859 | 0.193 | 2.078 | 0.202 | −0.219 | −0.009 | −0.118 | −0.049 |
| Burundi | 2006 | 1.347 | 0.162 | 1.610 | 0.177 | −0.263 | −0.015 | −0.195 | −0.092 |
| Cambodia | 2004 | 2.062 | 0.202 | 2.336 | 0.213 | −0.274 | −0.011 | −0.133 | −0.054 |
| Cambodia | 2007 | 2.332 | 0.214 | 2.355 | 0.215 | −0.022 | −0.001 | −0.010 | −0.004 |
| Cambodia | 2008 | 1.691 | 0.184 | 1.708 | 0.184 | −0.016 | −0.001 | −0.010 | −0.004 |
| Cambodia | 2009 | 1.543 | 0.175 | 1.546 | 0.175 | −0.003 | 0.000 | −0.002 | −0.001 |
| Cameroon | 2007 | 1.763 | 0.190 | 2.016 | 0.201 | −0.253 | −0.011 | −0.143 | −0.057 |
| Central African Republic | 2003 | 2.264 | 0.213 | 2.306 | 0.214 | −0.042 | −0.001 | −0.019 | −0.007 |
| Chad | 2002 | 1.848 | 0.194 | 4.681 | 0.276 | −2.832 | −0.082 | −1.533 | −0.422 |
| Chile | 2003 | 4.052 | 0.263 | 4.113 | 0.265 | −0.061 | −0.001 | −0.015 | −0.005 |
| Chile | 2006 | 3.478 | 0.251 | 3.552 | 0.252 | −0.074 | −0.002 | −0.021 | −0.007 |
| Colombia | 2004 | 5.295 | 0.281 | 5.411 | 0.283 | −0.116 | −0.002 | −0.022 | −0.006 |
| Colombia | 2008 | 4.999 | 0.276 | 5.004 | 0.277 | −0.005 | 0.000 | −0.001 | 0.000 |
| Congo, Rep. | 2005 | 2.765 | 0.230 | 4.163 | 0.265 | −1.399 | −0.035 | −0.506 | −0.151 |
| Costa Rica | 2002 | 3.359 | 0.246 | 4.143 | 0.263 | −0.784 | −0.017 | −0.233 | −0.069 |
| Costa Rica | 2003 | 3.195 | 0.242 | 4.318 | 0.266 | −1.123 | −0.024 | −0.351 | −0.100 |
| Costa Rica | 2004 | 2.985 | 0.237 | 4.389 | 0.268 | −1.404 | −0.031 | −0.470 | −0.133 |
| Costa Rica | 2005 | 2.773 | 0.232 | 4.201 | 0.266 | −1.428 | −0.034 | −0.515 | −0.147 |
| Costa Rica | 2006 | 3.040 | 0.239 | 4.488 | 0.271 | −1.448 | −0.032 | −0.476 | −0.135 |
| Costa Rica | 2007 | 3.039 | 0.239 | 4.311 | 0.268 | −1.271 | −0.029 | −0.418 | −0.123 |
| Costa Rica | 2008 | 2.979 | 0.237 | 4.389 | 0.270 | −1.410 | −0.032 | −0.473 | −0.137 |
| Costa Rica | 2009 | 3.333 | 0.247 | 5.344 | 0.286 | −2.011 | −0.039 | −0.603 | −0.159 |
| Croatia | 2004 | 1.053 | 0.142 | 1.163 | 0.149 | −0.110 | −0.007 | −0.105 | −0.051 |
| Croatia | 2008 | 1.356 | 0.164 | 1.506 | 0.172 | −0.149 | −0.008 | −0.110 | −0.051 |
| Dominican Republic | 2002 | 3.256 | 0.243 | 3.377 | 0.246 | −0.121 | −0.003 | −0.037 | −0.012 |
| Dominican Republic | 2003 | 3.561 | 0.252 | 4.020 | 0.262 | −0.460 | −0.010 | −0.129 | −0.040 |
| Dominican Republic | 2004 | 3.553 | 0.251 | 3.779 | 0.256 | −0.226 | −0.005 | −0.064 | −0.020 |
| Dominican Republic | 2005 | 3.405 | 0.248 | 3.471 | 0.249 | −0.067 | −0.002 | −0.020 | −0.006 |
| Dominican Republic | 2006 | 3.532 | 0.251 | 3.661 | 0.254 | −0.129 | −0.003 | −0.037 | −0.012 |
| Dominican Republic | 2007 | 2.984 | 0.236 | 3.025 | 0.237 | −0.041 | −0.001 | −0.014 | −0.005 |
| Dominican Republic | 2008 | 3.019 | 0.237 | 3.133 | 0.240 | −0.114 | −0.003 | −0.038 | −0.013 |
| Dominican Republic | 2009 | 2.998 | 0.237 | 3.418 | 0.248 | −0.420 | −0.011 | −0.140 | −0.046 |
| Dominican Republic | 2010 | 2.746 | 0.230 | 3.224 | 0.243 | −0.478 | −0.013 | −0.174 | −0.057 |
| Ecuador | 2005 | 4.099 | 0.262 | 4.309 | 0.266 | −0.210 | −0.004 | −0.051 | −0.015 |
| Ecuador | 2008 | 3.273 | 0.245 | 3.850 | 0.259 | −0.576 | −0.013 | −0.176 | −0.054 |
| Ecuador | 2009 | 3.102 | 0.240 | 3.117 | 0.240 | −0.015 | 0.000 | −0.005 | −0.002 |
| El Salvador | 2002 | 4.033 | 0.258 | 4.426 | 0.265 | −0.393 | −0.007 | −0.097 | −0.027 |
| El Salvador | 2003 | 3.455 | 0.247 | 3.653 | 0.251 | −0.198 | −0.004 | −0.057 | −0.017 |
| El Salvador | 2004 | 3.076 | 0.239 | 3.252 | 0.243 | −0.177 | −0.004 | −0.057 | −0.018 |
| El Salvador | 2005 | 3.354 | 0.245 | 3.637 | 0.251 | −0.283 | −0.006 | −0.084 | −0.026 |
| El Salvador | 2006 | 2.597 | 0.224 | 2.790 | 0.230 | −0.193 | −0.006 | −0.074 | −0.026 |
| El Salvador | 2007 | 2.702 | 0.228 | 2.906 | 0.234 | −0.204 | −0.006 | −0.075 | −0.026 |
| El Salvador | 2008 | 2.661 | 0.227 | 2.828 | 0.232 | −0.166 | −0.005 | −0.062 | −0.021 |
| El Salvador | 2009 | 2.951 | 0.235 | 3.165 | 0.241 | −0.215 | −0.006 | −0.073 | −0.024 |
| Fiji | 2002 | 2.735 | 0.229 | 3.418 | 0.246 | −0.683 | −0.018 | −0.250 | −0.077 |
| Fiji | 2008 | 2.170 | 0.207 | 2.608 | 0.223 | −0.438 | −0.016 | −0.202 | −0.077 |
| Gabon | 2005 | 2.024 | 0.201 | 2.424 | 0.217 | −0.400 | −0.015 | −0.198 | −0.076 |
| Georgia | 2002 | 1.902 | 0.197 | 2.154 | 0.207 | −0.253 | −0.010 | −0.133 | −0.051 |
| Georgia | 2003 | 1.906 | 0.197 | 2.280 | 0.211 | −0.374 | −0.014 | −0.196 | −0.072 |
| Georgia | 2005 | 1.979 | 0.200 | 2.262 | 0.211 | −0.283 | −0.011 | −0.143 | −0.053 |
| Georgia | 2006 | 1.988 | 0.200 | 2.355 | 0.214 | −0.367 | −0.014 | −0.185 | −0.069 |
| Georgia | 2007 | 1.806 | 0.192 | 1.991 | 0.200 | −0.185 | −0.008 | −0.102 | −0.040 |
| Georgia | 2008 | 2.011 | 0.202 | 2.321 | 0.213 | −0.310 | −0.011 | −0.154 | −0.057 |
| Georgia | 2009 | 2.052 | 0.203 | 2.255 | 0.211 | −0.203 | −0.007 | −0.099 | −0.037 |
| Georgia | 2010 | 2.094 | 0.206 | 2.224 | 0.210 | −0.130 | −0.005 | −0.062 | −0.023 |
| Guinea | 2003 | 1.899 | 0.195 | 2.272 | 0.210 | −0.373 | −0.015 | −0.196 | −0.078 |
| Guinea | 2007 | 1.805 | 0.192 | 2.408 | 0.216 | −0.603 | −0.024 | −0.334 | −0.123 |
| Honduras | 2002 | 6.005 | 0.285 | 8.778 | 0.313 | −2.773 | −0.028 | −0.462 | −0.099 |
| Honduras | 2003 | 5.678 | 0.284 | 8.186 | 0.312 | −2.508 | −0.028 | −0.442 | −0.098 |
| Honduras | 2004 | 5.582 | 0.283 | 8.115 | 0.311 | −2.533 | −0.028 | −0.454 | −0.101 |
| Honduras | 2005 | 6.139 | 0.289 | 8.847 | 0.316 | −2.708 | −0.027 | −0.441 | −0.095 |
| Honduras | 2006 | 5.354 | 0.279 | 7.784 | 0.307 | −2.430 | −0.029 | −0.454 | −0.103 |
| Honduras | 2007 | 4.651 | 0.272 | 6.599 | 0.300 | −1.948 | −0.028 | −0.419 | −0.102 |
| Honduras | 2008 | 6.919 | 0.295 | 9.246 | 0.317 | −2.328 | −0.021 | −0.336 | −0.072 |
| Honduras | 2009 | 5.209 | 0.276 | 6.934 | 0.298 | −1.725 | −0.021 | −0.331 | −0.077 |
| Hungary | 2004 | 1.121 | 0.147 | 1.202 | 0.152 | −0.081 | −0.005 | −0.072 | −0.035 |
| Hungary | 2007 | 1.197 | 0.152 | 1.208 | 0.153 | −0.012 | −0.001 | −0.010 | −0.005 |
| India | 2004 | 1.355 | 0.162 | 1.451 | 0.167 | −0.097 | −0.006 | −0.071 | −0.035 |
| India | 2009 | 1.392 | 0.164 | 1.488 | 0.170 | −0.096 | −0.006 | −0.069 | −0.034 |
| Indonesia | 2002 | 1.135 | 0.145 | 1.353 | 0.159 | −0.218 | −0.014 | −0.192 | −0.099 |
| Indonesia | 2005 | 1.400 | 0.165 | 1.566 | 0.174 | −0.166 | −0.009 | −0.119 | −0.057 |
| Indonesia | 2008 | 1.393 | 0.166 | 1.629 | 0.179 | −0.236 | −0.013 | −0.169 | −0.077 |
| Indonesia | 2010 | 1.486 | 0.174 | 1.511 | 0.175 | −0.025 | −0.001 | −0.017 | −0.007 |
| Jamaica | 2002 | 14.669 | 0.318 | 15.340 | 0.321 | −0.672 | −0.003 | −0.046 | −0.009 |
| Jamaica | 2002 | 14.669 | 0.235 | 3.086 | 0.239 | −0.169 | −0.005 | −0.012 | −0.020 |
| Jamaica | 2004 | 2.503 | 0.221 | 2.687 | 0.227 | −0.183 | −0.006 | −0.073 | −0.027 |
| Jordan | 2002 | 1.768 | 0.189 | 1.814 | 0.191 | −0.046 | −0.002 | −0.026 | −0.011 |
| Jordan | 2006 | 1.676 | 0.183 | 1.720 | 0.185 | −0.044 | −0.002 | −0.026 | −0.012 |
| Kazakhstan | 2003 | 1.344 | 0.166 | 1.476 | 0.173 | −0.132 | −0.007 | −0.098 | −0.043 |
| Kazakhstan | 2004 | 1.247 | 0.158 | 1.349 | 0.164 | −0.102 | −0.006 | −0.082 | −0.038 |
| Kazakhstan | 2006 | 1.176 | 0.150 | 1.377 | 0.163 | −0.201 | −0.012 | −0.171 | −0.083 |
| Kazakhstan | 2007 | 1.178 | 0.151 | 1.333 | 0.161 | −0.155 | −0.010 | −0.132 | −0.064 |
| Kazakhstan | 2008 | 1.092 | 0.143 | 1.329 | 0.159 | −0.237 | −0.015 | −0.217 | −0.108 |
| Kazakhstan | 2009 | 1.066 | 0.142 | 1.101 | 0.145 | −0.035 | −0.002 | −0.033 | −0.017 |
| Kenya | 2005 | 2.810 | 0.230 | 2.870 | 0.232 | −0.060 | −0.002 | −0.021 | −0.008 |
| Kyrgyz Republic | 2002 | 1.209 | 0.155 | 1.254 | 0.158 | −0.046 | −0.003 | −0.038 | −0.018 |
| Kyrgyz Republic | 2004 | 1.421 | 0.170 | 1.449 | 0.172 | −0.028 | −0.001 | −0.020 | −0.009 |
| Kyrgyz Republic | 2007 | 1.352 | 0.163 | 1.626 | 0.179 | −0.275 | −0.015 | −0.203 | −0.094 |
| Kyrgyz Republic | 2009 | 1.525 | 0.177 | 1.592 | 0.180 | −0.066 | −0.003 | −0.044 | −0.018 |
| Kyrgyz Republic | 2010 | 1.555 | 0.178 | 1.589 | 0.180 | −0.034 | −0.002 | −0.022 | −0.009 |
| Kyrgyz Republic | 2011 | 1.327 | 0.163 | 1.494 | 0.172 | −0.168 | −0.009 | −0.126 | −0.057 |
| Latvia | 2007 | 1.533 | 0.177 | 2.040 | 0.200 | −0.507 | −0.023 | −0.331 | −0.130 |
| Latvia | 2008 | 1.561 | 0.179 | 2.035 | 0.200 | −0.474 | −0.021 | −0.304 | −0.119 |
| Latvia | 2009 | 1.417 | 0.170 | 1.795 | 0.189 | −0.378 | −0.019 | −0.267 | −0.109 |
| Lesotho | 2002 | 3.870 | 0.256 | 5.686 | 0.286 | −1.816 | −0.030 | −0.469 | −0.119 |
| Liberia | 2007 | 1.692 | 0.185 | 12.055 | 0.357 | −10.363 | −0.172 | −6.125 | −0.928 |
| The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 2002 | 1.745 | 0.189 | 1.904 | 0.196 | −0.160 | −0.007 | −0.092 | −0.036 |
| The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 2003 | 1.766 | 0.190 | 1.971 | 0.199 | −0.205 | −0.009 | −0.116 | −0.045 |
| The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 2004 | 1.748 | 0.189 | 1.990 | 0.200 | −0.243 | −0.010 | −0.139 | −0.054 |
| The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 2005 | 1.771 | 0.192 | 2.078 | 0.204 | −0.308 | −0.012 | −0.174 | −0.064 |
| The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 2006 | 2.173 | 0.209 | 2.371 | 0.216 | −0.198 | −0.007 | −0.091 | −0.033 |
| The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 2008 | 2.339 | 0.215 | 2.834 | 0.231 | −0.495 | −0.016 | −0.212 | −0.074 |
| The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 2009 | 2.216 | 0.211 | 2.507 | 0.221 | −0.291 | −0.010 | −0.131 | −0.046 |
| The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 2010 | 2.261 | 0.213 | 2.579 | 0.224 | −0.318 | −0.010 | −0.140 | −0.048 |
| Madagascar | 2005 | 2.642 | 0.223 | 2.925 | 0.232 | −0.283 | −0.010 | −0.107 | −0.043 |
| Madagascar | 2010 | 2.329 | 0.214 | 2.381 | 0.216 | −0.052 | −0.002 | −0.022 | −0.008 |
| Malawi | 2004 | 1.790 | 0.189 | 1.984 | 0.198 | −0.194 | −0.009 | −0.108 | −0.046 |
| Malawi | 2010 | 2.301 | 0.213 | 2.679 | 0.226 | −0.378 | −0.013 | −0.165 | −0.060 |
| Malaysia | 2004 | 1.666 | 0.186 | 2.952 | 0.234 | −1.286 | −0.048 | −0.772 | −0.259 |
| Malaysia | 2007 | 2.592 | 0.225 | 4.208 | 0.265 | −1.616 | −0.040 | −0.623 | −0.179 |
| Malaysia | 2009 | 2.627 | 0.226 | 4.036 | 0.261 | −1.410 | −0.035 | −0.537 | −0.156 |
| Maldives | 2004 | 1.612 | 0.183 | 2.003 | 0.200 | −0.391 | −0.017 | −0.243 | −0.093 |
| Mali | 2006 | 1.777 | 0.190 | 1.940 | 0.197 | −0.163 | −0.007 | −0.092 | −0.037 |
| Mali | 2010 | 1.294 | 0.162 | 1.720 | 0.185 | −0.426 | −0.023 | −0.329 | −0.139 |
| Mexico | 2002 | 3.533 | 0.251 | 3.824 | 0.257 | −0.291 | −0.006 | −0.082 | −0.026 |
| Mexico | 2002 | 3.533 | 0.247 | 3.411 | 0.254 | −0.266 | −0.007 | −0.075 | −0.030 |
| Mexico | 2004 | 3.361 | 0.247 | 3.674 | 0.255 | −0.313 | −0.008 | −0.093 | −0.032 |
| Mexico | 2004 | 3.361 | 0.242 | 2.873 | 0.249 | −0.273 | −0.008 | −0.081 | −0.033 |
| Mexico | 2005 | 3.417 | 0.244 | 3.759 | 0.254 | −0.342 | −0.010 | −0.100 | −0.040 |
| Mexico | 2006 | 3.161 | 0.232 | 3.477 | 0.240 | −0.316 | −0.009 | −0.100 | −0.038 |
| Mexico | 2006 | 3.161 | 0.240 | 3.171 | 0.247 | −0.295 | −0.007 | −0.093 | −0.028 |
| Mexico | 2008 | 3.290 | 0.223 | 3.705 | 0.231 | −0.416 | −0.008 | −0.126 | −0.037 |
| Mexico | 2008 | 3.290 | 0.233 | 3.264 | 0.241 | −0.373 | −0.008 | −0.113 | −0.035 |
| Mexico | 2010 | 2.812 | 0.233 | 3.130 | 0.243 | −0.318 | −0.010 | −0.113 | −0.044 |
| Mexico | 2010 | 2.812 | 0.228 | 3.041 | 0.237 | −0.307 | −0.009 | −0.109 | −0.039 |
| Montenegro | 2005 | 1.117 | 0.148 | 2.396 | 0.213 | −1.279 | −0.065 | −1.146 | −0.441 |
| Montenegro | 2006 | 1.064 | 0.144 | 1.545 | 0.173 | −0.482 | −0.029 | −0.453 | −0.201 |
| Montenegro | 2007 | 1.145 | 0.151 | 1.710 | 0.182 | −0.565 | −0.032 | −0.493 | −0.209 |
| Montenegro | 2008 | 1.115 | 0.147 | 1.388 | 0.164 | −0.273 | −0.017 | −0.245 | −0.115 |
| Montenegro | 2009 | 1.132 | 0.148 | 1.330 | 0.160 | −0.198 | −0.012 | −0.175 | −0.083 |
| Montenegro | 2010 | 1.020 | 0.140 | 1.208 | 0.152 | −0.188 | −0.012 | −0.184 | −0.088 |
| Mozambique | 2002 | 2.679 | 0.226 | 2.895 | 0.233 | −0.215 | −0.007 | −0.080 | −0.030 |
| Namibia | 2003 | 6.693 | 0.304 | 6.843 | 0.306 | −0.149 | −0.002 | −0.022 | −0.006 |
| Nepal | 2003 | 2.272 | 0.211 | 2.463 | 0.218 | −0.191 | −0.007 | −0.084 | −0.034 |
| Nepal | 2010 | 1.298 | 0.160 | 1.697 | 0.182 | −0.399 | −0.022 | −0.307 | −0.136 |
| Nicaragua | 2005 | 3.655 | 0.252 | 4.734 | 0.274 | −1.079 | −0.022 | −0.295 | −0.086 |
| Nicaragua | 2005 | 3.655 | 0.197 | 2.670 | 0.225 | −0.753 | −0.028 | −0.206 | −0.141 |
| Nigeria | 2009 | 3.015 | 0.237 | 3.884 | 0.258 | −0.869 | −0.021 | −0.288 | −0.089 |
| Nigeria | 2011 | 1.840 | 0.194 | 2.006 | 0.201 | −0.165 | −0.007 | −0.090 | −0.035 |
| Pakistan | 2005 | 1.321 | 0.158 | 1.327 | 0.159 | −0.005 | 0.000 | −0.004 | −0.002 |
| Panama | 2003 | 4.835 | 0.273 | 6.338 | 0.294 | −1.502 | −0.021 | −0.311 | −0.076 |
| Panama | 2004 | 4.494 | 0.267 | 5.966 | 0.289 | −1.472 | −0.022 | −0.328 | −0.082 |
| Panama | 2005 | 4.199 | 0.263 | 6.187 | 0.293 | −1.988 | −0.030 | −0.473 | −0.115 |
| Panama | 2006 | 4.465 | 0.267 | 6.843 | 0.300 | −2.378 | −0.033 | −0.533 | −0.124 |
| Panama | 2009 | 3.615 | 0.252 | 5.722 | 0.290 | −2.107 | −0.038 | −0.583 | −0.149 |
| Panama | 2010 | 3.627 | 0.252 | 5.197 | 0.281 | −1.570 | −0.029 | −0.433 | −0.116 |
| Paraguay | 2002 | 4.886 | 0.273 | 6.279 | 0.293 | −1.393 | −0.020 | −0.285 | −0.072 |
| Paraguay | 2003 | 4.751 | 0.274 | 6.916 | 0.304 | −2.165 | −0.030 | −0.456 | −0.110 |
| Paraguay | 2004 | 3.970 | 0.260 | 5.809 | 0.291 | −1.839 | −0.032 | −0.463 | −0.121 |
| Paraguay | 2005 | 3.658 | 0.253 | 5.787 | 0.291 | −2.130 | −0.038 | −0.582 | −0.149 |
| Paraguay | 2006 | 4.255 | 0.264 | 6.594 | 0.300 | −2.340 | −0.036 | −0.550 | −0.136 |
| Paraguay | 2007 | 3.816 | 0.256 | 5.793 | 0.291 | −1.976 | −0.035 | −0.518 | −0.135 |
| Paraguay | 2008 | 3.574 | 0.251 | 5.533 | 0.287 | −1.959 | −0.036 | −0.548 | −0.145 |
| Paraguay | 2009 | 3.441 | 0.247 | 5.480 | 0.285 | −2.039 | −0.038 | −0.593 | −0.154 |
| Paraguay | 2010 | 3.730 | 0.253 | 6.150 | 0.294 | −2.419 | −0.042 | −0.649 | −0.164 |
| Peru | 2006 | 3.416 | 0.247 | 3.447 | 0.248 | −0.031 | −0.001 | −0.009 | −0.003 |
| Peru | 2007 | 3.609 | 0.251 | 3.619 | 0.251 | −0.010 | 0.000 | −0.003 | −0.001 |
| Peru | 2008 | 3.086 | 0.238 | 3.093 | 0.238 | −0.007 | 0.000 | −0.002 | −0.001 |
| Peru | 2009 | 3.099 | 0.239 | 3.131 | 0.239 | −0.032 | −0.001 | −0.010 | −0.003 |
| Philippines | 2003 | 2.370 | 0.217 | 2.778 | 0.230 | −0.408 | −0.013 | −0.172 | −0.060 |
| Philippines | 2006 | 2.309 | 0.215 | 2.682 | 0.227 | −0.373 | −0.012 | −0.161 | −0.057 |
| Philippines | 2009 | 2.183 | 0.210 | 2.338 | 0.215 | −0.155 | −0.006 | −0.071 | −0.027 |
| Poland | 2002 | 1.373 | 0.167 | 1.390 | 0.167 | −0.018 | −0.001 | −0.013 | −0.006 |
| Poland | 2005 | 1.429 | 0.170 | 1.439 | 0.171 | −0.010 | −0.001 | −0.007 | −0.003 |
| Poland | 2007 | 1.373 | 0.166 | 1.407 | 0.168 | −0.034 | −0.002 | −0.025 | −0.011 |
| Poland | 2008 | 1.389 | 0.167 | 1.492 | 0.173 | −0.104 | −0.006 | −0.075 | −0.034 |
| Poland | 2009 | 1.378 | 0.166 | 1.482 | 0.172 | −0.104 | −0.006 | −0.076 | −0.034 |
| Poland | 2010 | 1.352 | 0.165 | 1.454 | 0.171 | −0.101 | −0.006 | −0.075 | −0.034 |
| Poland | 2011 | 1.282 | 0.160 | 1.363 | 0.165 | −0.081 | −0.005 | −0.063 | −0.029 |
| Romania | 2002 | 1.186 | 0.154 | 1.245 | 0.157 | −0.059 | −0.004 | −0.050 | −0.023 |
| Romania | 2003 | 1.165 | 0.152 | 1.180 | 0.153 | −0.016 | −0.001 | −0.014 | −0.007 |
| Romania | 2007 | 1.245 | 0.157 | 1.274 | 0.159 | −0.029 | −0.002 | −0.024 | −0.011 |
| Romania | 2008 | 1.171 | 0.152 | 1.211 | 0.155 | −0.041 | −0.003 | −0.035 | −0.016 |
| Romania | 2010 | 0.802 | 0.119 | 0.805 | 0.119 | −0.003 | 0.000 | −0.004 | −0.002 |
| Russian Federation | 2002 | 1.479 | 0.175 | 1.848 | 0.192 | −0.369 | −0.017 | −0.250 | −0.099 |
| Russian Federation | 2003 | 1.614 | 0.182 | 2.103 | 0.204 | −0.489 | −0.021 | −0.303 | −0.117 |
| Russian Federation | 2004 | 1.598 | 0.182 | 2.014 | 0.200 | −0.417 | −0.018 | −0.261 | −0.101 |
| Russian Federation | 2005 | 1.634 | 0.184 | 2.042 | 0.201 | −0.409 | −0.018 | −0.250 | −0.097 |
| Russian Federation | 2006 | 2.094 | 0.205 | 2.546 | 0.221 | −0.452 | −0.016 | −0.216 | −0.078 |
| Russian Federation | 2007 | 2.277 | 0.212 | 2.722 | 0.227 | −0.445 | −0.015 | −0.196 | −0.071 |
| Russian Federation | 2008 | 2.110 | 0.205 | 2.545 | 0.221 | −0.435 | −0.016 | −0.206 | −0.077 |
| Russian Federation | 2009 | 1.885 | 0.195 | 2.502 | 0.219 | −0.618 | −0.024 | −0.328 | −0.123 |
| Rwanda | 2005 | 3.621 | 0.253 | 3.754 | 0.257 | −0.133 | −0.003 | −0.037 | −0.013 |
| Rwanda | 2010 | 3.216 | 0.243 | 3.598 | 0.253 | −0.382 | −0.010 | −0.119 | −0.042 |
| Senegal | 2005 | 1.791 | 0.191 | 1.792 | 0.191 | −0.001 | 0.000 | −0.001 | 0.000 |
| Serbia | 2002 | 1.285 | 0.159 | 2.219 | 0.206 | −0.934 | −0.047 | −0.727 | −0.292 |
| Serbia | 2003 | 1.290 | 0.160 | 2.343 | 0.211 | −1.053 | −0.051 | −0.816 | −0.317 |
| Serbia | 2004 | 1.295 | 0.161 | 2.529 | 0.219 | −1.235 | −0.057 | −0.953 | −0.355 |
| Serbia | 2005 | 1.321 | 0.163 | 2.114 | 0.202 | −0.793 | −0.039 | −0.600 | −0.238 |
| Serbia | 2006 | 1.087 | 0.145 | 1.635 | 0.178 | −0.548 | −0.032 | −0.504 | −0.223 |
| Serbia | 2007 | 1.077 | 0.144 | 1.404 | 0.164 | −0.327 | −0.020 | −0.303 | −0.141 |
| Serbia | 2008 | 1.012 | 0.138 | 1.025 | 0.139 | −0.014 | −0.001 | −0.014 | −0.007 |
| Serbia | 2009 | 0.984 | 0.137 | 1.401 | 0.163 | −0.416 | −0.027 | −0.423 | −0.197 |
| Serbia | 2010 | 1.081 | 0.145 | 1.307 | 0.160 | −0.226 | −0.014 | −0.209 | −0.098 |
| Sierra Leone | 2003 | 2.133 | 0.207 | 2.344 | 0.215 | −0.211 | −0.008 | −0.099 | −0.038 |
| Sierra Leone | 2011 | 1.484 | 0.172 | 1.728 | 0.185 | −0.244 | −0.013 | −0.164 | −0.073 |
| South Africa | 2008 | 7.052 | 0.306 | 7.907 | 0.314 | −0.855 | −0.009 | −0.121 | −0.028 |
| Sri Lanka | 2006 | 1.905 | 0.195 | 1.921 | 0.196 | −0.016 | −0.001 | −0.008 | −0.004 |
| Sudan | 2009 | 1.447 | 0.173 | 1.745 | 0.187 | −0.297 | −0.014 | −0.205 | −0.083 |
| Swaziland | 2009 | 3.513 | 0.250 | 3.600 | 0.252 | −0.087 | −0.002 | −0.025 | −0.008 |
| Syrian Arab Republic | 2004 | 1.514 | 0.174 | 1.954 | 0.196 | −0.440 | −0.021 | −0.291 | −0.123 |
| Tajikistan | 2003 | 1.272 | 0.160 | 1.543 | 0.175 | −0.271 | −0.015 | −0.213 | −0.094 |
| Tajikistan | 2004 | 1.344 | 0.164 | 1.628 | 0.180 | −0.284 | −0.015 | −0.211 | −0.093 |
| Tajikistan | 2007 | 1.259 | 0.159 | 1.540 | 0.175 | −0.281 | −0.016 | −0.224 | −0.099 |
| Tajikistan | 2009 | 1.155 | 0.151 | 2.012 | 0.197 | −0.857 | −0.046 | −0.742 | −0.302 |
| Tunisia | 2005 | 2.021 | 0.202 | 2.025 | 0.202 | −0.004 | 0.000 | −0.002 | −0.001 |
| Turkey | 2002 | 2.163 | 0.207 | 2.176 | 0.208 | −0.014 | −0.001 | −0.006 | −0.002 |
| Turkey | 2006 | 1.902 | 0.197 | 1.904 | 0.197 | −0.002 | 0.000 | −0.001 | 0.000 |
| Uganda | 2002 | 2.513 | 0.220 | 2.583 | 0.223 | −0.070 | −0.002 | −0.028 | −0.011 |
| Uganda | 2005 | 2.148 | 0.207 | 2.472 | 0.219 | −0.323 | −0.012 | −0.151 | −0.057 |
| Uganda | 2009 | 2.332 | 0.214 | 2.756 | 0.228 | −0.424 | −0.015 | −0.182 | −0.068 |
| Ukraine | 2002 | 1.016 | 0.139 | 1.090 | 0.144 | −0.074 | −0.005 | −0.073 | −0.037 |
| Ukraine | 2003 | 1.012 | 0.137 | 1.072 | 0.142 | −0.060 | −0.004 | −0.059 | −0.030 |
| Ukraine | 2007 | 1.091 | 0.145 | 1.104 | 0.146 | −0.013 | −0.001 | −0.012 | −0.006 |
| Uruguay | 2006 | 2.755 | 0.230 | 2.797 | 0.231 | −0.042 | −0.001 | −0.015 | −0.005 |
| Uruguay | 2007 | 2.819 | 0.232 | 3.012 | 0.237 | −0.192 | −0.005 | −0.068 | −0.023 |
| Uruguay | 2010 | 2.470 | 0.221 | 2.719 | 0.229 | −0.249 | −0.008 | −0.101 | −0.035 |
| Vietnam | 2002 | 1.654 | 0.183 | 1.764 | 0.188 | −0.109 | −0.005 | −0.066 | −0.029 |
| Vietnam | 2004 | 1.585 | 0.180 | 1.662 | 0.184 | −0.077 | −0.004 | −0.049 | −0.021 |
| Vietnam | 2008 | 1.489 | 0.174 | 1.538 | 0.176 | −0.048 | −0.003 | −0.032 | −0.014 |
| Zambia | 2010 | 4.768 | 0.276 | 4.769 | 0.276 | −0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Source: Authors’ estimates.
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Articles in the same Issue
- Global Absolute Poverty: Behind the Veil of Dollars
- Is there such thing as middle class values? Class differences, values and political orientations in Latin America
- The Impact of Income Distribution on the Current Account
- Hidden Inequality: How Much Difference Would Adjustment for Illicit Financial Flows Make to National Income Distributions?
- Few and Far Between: Some Explanations of Health Provisions in Trade Agreements
Articles in the same Issue
- Global Absolute Poverty: Behind the Veil of Dollars
- Is there such thing as middle class values? Class differences, values and political orientations in Latin America
- The Impact of Income Distribution on the Current Account
- Hidden Inequality: How Much Difference Would Adjustment for Illicit Financial Flows Make to National Income Distributions?
- Few and Far Between: Some Explanations of Health Provisions in Trade Agreements