Home Medicine From ancient remedy to modern COVID-19 adjunct: a narrative review of mechanistic, in vitro, and clinical evidence on propolis
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From ancient remedy to modern COVID-19 adjunct: a narrative review of mechanistic, in vitro, and clinical evidence on propolis

  • Giorgos Tzigkounakis ORCID logo EMAIL logo and Jonathan Brown
Published/Copyright: January 19, 2026

Abstract

Introduction

Despite the global rollout of COVID-19 vaccines, limited access, vaccine hesitancy, and the emergence of viral variants continue to underscore the need for complementary antiviral strategies. Propolis, a resinous bee product widely used in traditional medicine, has attracted scientific interest due to its reported antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant properties.

Content

This narrative review examines the therapeutic potential of propolis as a candidate adjunctive treatment for COVID-19, focusing on mechanistic, in vitro, and clinical evidence. A comprehensive review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Europe PMC (January 2020 to May 2025), covering molecular docking reports, in vitro assays, and human clinical studies evaluating propolis or its key constituents against SARS-CoV-2. In silico reports describe interactions of more than forty propolis constituents with key host and viral targets, providing mechanistic context. In vitro evidence demonstrates inhibition at entry and replication targets alongside attenuation of inflammatory signaling. Limited clinical data, spanning seven studies and two case reports, suggest milder symptoms and shorter hospital stays, with no serious adverse events observed.

Summary and Outlook

Preclinical and early clinical evidence suggest propolis may be a useful adjunct in COVID-19 therapy. Large, placebo-controlled trials with well characterized and standardized extracts are needed to confirm efficacy and safety.


Corresponding author: Giorgos Tzigkounakis, Department of Research, Health and Resilience Institute (H+RI), Ipsilantou 29, 106 75 Athens, Greece, E-mail:

  1. Research ethics: Not applicable. This article is a narrative review and did not involve the collection of new data from human participants or animals.

  2. Informed consent: Not applicable

  3. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission. GT: Conceptualisation. GT and JB: Literature search, screening and study selection, data extraction, synthesis and interpretation, manuscript drafting, critical revision for important intellectual content, supervision, and final approval.

  4. Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: The authors declare that no Large Language Models, AI, or Machine Learning tools were used in the writing of this manuscript.

  5. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

  6. Research funding: The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

  7. Data availability: Not applicable.

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Supple mentary Material

This article contains supplementary material (https://doi.org/10.1515/jcim-2025-0275).


Received: 2025-07-28
Accepted: 2025-10-07
Published Online: 2026-01-19

© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

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