A critical discourse analysis of China’s national image construction: insights from the Swahili news corpus

1 Introduction

Swahili, as a significant indigenous language in Africa, is widely used in education, media, and government affairs across East Africa. In recent years, with the acceleration of globalization and the increasing frequency of international interactions, China–Africa relations have become increasingly close. Swahili has become particularly important in fostering connections between China and Africa, especially in the domains of radio broadcasting and media. As a key medium for national information dissemination, official mainstream media plays a significant role in international communication and the construction of national image. China Radio International (CRI), one of China’s major international media outlets, has been instrumental in shaping China’s national image and amplifying China’s voice through its Swahili news channel.

Despite the growing importance of the Swahili language in China–Africa relations, systematic research on Swahili corpus remains relatively scarce in China. This study uses Swahili news texts as samples, collecting news texts from the “China/World” (China/Dunia) section of the CRI website from 2023 to 2024 through web crawling to establish a specialized micro news corpus. Under the guidance of critical discourse analysis framework, the study explores the linguistic features and discourse structures of news reports in constructing China’s image. By employing corpus-based methods of high-frequency wordlist, word clusters and concordance line, this research aims to elucidate the attitudinal tendencies of media when reporting on China–Africa relations and to exhibit the national image of China in these interactions.

Furthermore, the discussion examines power relations, social-cultural implications, and ideological tendencies in CRI’s reporting to provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between media and the nation. The study provides a new perspective on Swahili discourse analysis and aims to offer discourse optimization strategies to enhance the construction of China’s image in Africa, thereby promoting the sustainable development of China–Africa relations and the construction of China’s discourse system in Africa.

2 Literature review

In recent years, the Chinese government and academia have attached great importance to the research on national image. Chinese scholars generally believe that the national image reflects the comprehensive strength and overall influence of a country. Liu (2002) defines that national image refers to the projection of a country’s objective state in public opinion. It is a comprehensive reflection of the impressions, views, attitudes, and evaluations held by society about a country. Cheng (2007) argues that national image is primarily a form of subjective consciousness, highlighting the positive aspects of a nation or a country’s spiritual temperament. Li (2008) indicated that national image refers to a representation of a country on the international stage, namely, the overall impression and perception of the country by other countries.

Overseas scholars hold different views about national image. Boulding (1959) argued that a national image reflects the collective cognition and evaluation of a nation by the international community, representing its internal view of itself. According to Anderson (1983), nations are perceived as imagined communities rather than geopolitical entities and sovereign spaces where people and institutions reside.

Nowadays, since the media holds the power to influence public opinion, international reporting and political commentary in mass communication directly affect the public’s understanding, perceptions, and attitudes toward a particular country. Based on the importance of media discourse in shaping national image, Liu (2002) argued that media is not only a channel through which the public obtains information about the world but also an important gateway for a country’s image to enter the international community. Thus, media discourse plays a crucial role in national image studies. In this study, national image is defined as the perceptions and impressions of China held by other countries.

Fairclough, in his book Language and Power (1989), established a three-dimensional model of description, interpretation and explanation to reveal how discourse practices are shaped by social realities and how they influence social realities. While critical discourse analysis (CDA) has achieved significant results in revealing the relationship between power and discourse, it has also faced some controversies. For example, Fowler (1979) mentioned that the textual samples in CDA are too few to be representative, and the interpretation of discourse lacks objectivity and systematicity. Stubbs (1996) argued that CDA only targets small excerpts of text, thus lacking sufficient credibility. In response to these criticisms, some scholars have begun to incorporate corpus linguistics methods into CDA to enhance its scientific rigor and empirical basis, leading to the development of the “corpus-based critical discourse analysis” research branch. By relying on large-scale authentic language data, corpus-based methods strengthen the empirical nature and comprehensiveness of the research. The efficiency and reproducibility of this approach overcome the limitations of traditional discourse analysis, which often deals with small corpora and strong subjectivity. Thus, it has helped develop the discovery and verification of new linguistic phenomena in CDA. Combining CDA with media discourse analysis reveals how the media constructs and perpetuates the norms and ideologies of discourse, offering a valuable approach for engaging with national image studies.

The application of computational methods to empirical media language analysis patterns has made large-scale analysis possible. More and more scholars have begun to apply corpus-based research methods to CDA regarding environmental, social and other issues.

When it comes to foreign scholars’ studies, Putri and Mardiah (2024) employed Corpus-Assisted critical discourse analysis (CACDA) to explore the differing reporting attitudes toward the murder of George Floyd in ten news articles from two mainstream media, CNN and Aljazeera. Elsoufy (2024) used CDA and contrastive collocation analysis to compare the discourse on the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in Egyptian and Ethiopian news sources, identifying linguistic and ideological biases that reflect each country’s national interests by analyzing two online English corpora. Ndlovu and Nikabs (2023) explored how African news media reported and constructed Africa’s image during the COVID-19 pandemic. Analyzing reports from ten news agencies in various African countries, the study found that African media played a complex role in shaping public perceptions of Africa and the pandemic. Attia and Romero-Trillo (2022) analyzed media coverage of the 2011 Egyptian revolution, examining reports from Al Jazeera, Al Arabiya, BBC, and CNN in Arabic and English. They highlighted that American media discourse often negatively depicts Syrian refugees and contextualizes their impact.

In China, some scholars have applied corpus research methods to conduct CDA on Chinese and Western media news. Yang and Wang (2023) analyzed 21 China-related environmental news stories from The New York Times using corpus-based discourse analysis to explore how topoi shape China’s national image as a country prioritizing economic growth over the environment, and recommended more transparent environmental communication. Qian and Wang (2023) explored People’s Daily’s discourse construction on the topic of “carbon peak and carbon neutrality” by analyzing word frequency, collocation, and concordance analysis in a 1,753 news reports’ corpus. The study revealed People’s Daily enhanced public awareness and acceptance of carbon neutrality by introducing new discourse frameworks. Li (2024) systematically analyzed the portrayal of Beijing in corpus consisting of 4,138 reports from The Guardian and The Daily Telegraph during the COVID-19 pandemic, which revealed a relatively positive image of Beijing. Wang (2019) discussed the portrayal of Chinese enterprises in English news from countries along the “Belt and Road Initiative” by analyzing a corpus of 9,735 reports about Chinese enterprises in English media, finding that media held an objective and neutral attitude towards the development of enterprises. Han and Chen (2018, pp. 19–30), based on the transitivity system theory, conducted an analysis of news texts about the “Chinese Dream” in Chinese and Western media, exploring their discourse differences in constructing China’s image based on a 45 foreign news reports and 72 Chinese news reports corpus.

Compared to international research, media discourse analysis in Africa remains relatively underdeveloped. Recent studies have started to focus on this area. Xie and Xia (2023) analyze reports on China–Africa relations on the English website of the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. They investigated China’s national image and diplomatic strategies in China–Africa relations, discovering that the Chinese perspective on China–Africa relations primarily focused on cooperation and development, constructing a sincere and friendly brotherly partner image. Sheng (2022) analyzed Nigerian English media reports on China from 2015 to 2021, revealing that China’s national image in Nigeria is positive with its contributions in infrastructure, education, agriculture, and public health recognized by Nigerian media.

In summary, although corpus-based CDA research in China has made certain progress, it still has some shortcomings. First, domestic and foreign scholars mainly focus on Western countries and their related media with insufficient attention to African regions. These studies tend to concentrate on English and Chinese media, resulting in limited research on media content in local languages. Second, regarding research samples, domestic corpus studies mainly focus on a few media outlets, and the representativeness of corpus sources need further improvement. Therefore, there is an urgent need to conduct corpus-assisted CDA on African and Swahili media, an area that has not yet started in China.

3 Methodology

This study employs Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework of critical discourse analysis (CDA). According to Fairclough (1995), CDA contains three dimensions including text, discourse practice and sociocultural practice. Based on this framework, the first step involves a detailed linguistics examination of the media texts in the corpus. Through the high-frequency words, what aspects media had paid attention can be learned. The second step, by focusing on trigram clusters and concordance lines, is to contextualize specific words in order to reveal what attitudes are held to analyze the stance of media’s reports. Finally, the analysis moves to a broader social context, investigating what national image is intended to construct through media discourse. Building on the research questions above, this section shows how the Swahili news corpus was built by confirming resource of news reports, collecting data, and excluding irrelevant reports and images. Procedure of analysis of corpus with CDA framework is also detailed in this part.

4 Results

By using AntConc 3.5.9 to analyze the corpus, high-frequency possessive markers and conjunctions in the Swahili reports were excluded, retaining only content words. A frequency analysis identified the 20 most representative content words in the news reports (Table 1).

In addition to the four keywords “China” (China), “nchi” (country), “rais” (president) and “xi” (xi) used most commonly of the reports in the theme of China and its international interactions, it can be learned that “maendeleo” (development) and “ushirikiano” (cooperation) appear most frequent, indicating China’s active role in promoting international cooperation and global development. “mbili” (two) has appeared 522 times in the corpus with collocation of “pande mbili” (bilateral, both sides) and “nchi hizo mbili” (these two countries) which demonstrate China’s interaction with other countries. After checking the concordance of the word, it is found that the word has frequent occurrences with “nufaisha” (be beneficial to), “imarisha” (consolidate), “boresha” (improve) and “endeleza” (promote) among the verbs, and “uhusiano” (relationship) and “ushirikiano” (cooperation) among the nouns (Table 2). The context shows that CRI paid attention to China’s international relationship and its role in the stage of the world. The CRI seems to construct the related issues of international communication and cooperation in a positive way. Words such as “kunufaisha” (to benefit) and “kuboresha” (to improve) appear frequently, reflecting the media outlet’s emphasis on China’s positive actions and interactions on the global stage, thereby portraying China as a responsible major country.

According to the high-frequency wordlist, Table 3 shows the trigram clusters with search term which related to China and other countries’ interaction “China na …” (China and …). Cluster size was set to minimum 3 and maximum 3 to generate relevant trigram clusters which describe bilateral relations. Irrelevant content of international relationships are excluded.

From Table 3, it can be seen that in addition to reporting on the relationship between China and Western countries, the trigram clusters “China na Afrika” (China and Africa) and China and other African countries such as “China na Kenya” (China and Kenya) also appear with high frequency. This suggests that the CRI Swahili channel’s news reporting not only covers China’s interactions with Western countries but also places significant emphasis on its engagements with African nations. The analysis of trigram clusters further confirmed CRI’s emphasis on China’s communication efforts with Africa. It provides a clearer direction for subsequent co-occurrence analysis, which allows a deeper exploration of how CRI constructs China’s national image in Africa through media discourse.

Fairclough (1995) indicated discourse practice is the process of text production and text consumption. The concordance feature of the corpus facilitates large-scale lexical co-occurrence analysis, and helps revealing how media produce the reports and how the reports are consumed by the public. Table 4 shows the concordance lines in the corpus for the of words “China na Afrika” (China and Africa).

In the context of CRI’s reports on China–Africa relations, the production of these texts demonstrates a deliberate selection and emphasis on positive narratives. The reports focus mainly on achievements in economic and trade cooperation as well as cultural exchanges, conveying an optimistic outlook for future collaborations. Key lexical choices, such as “biashara” (trade), “uwekezaji” (investment), and “kilimo” (agriculture), reflect targeted areas of cooperation. These terms are strategically positioned alongside phrases like “ushirikiano wa uwekezaji” (investment cooperation) and “ushirikiano wa kilimo” (agricultural cooperation), which highlight mutual benefits (“umenufaisha pande hizo mbili”) and significant results (“umepata matokeo makubwa”), reinforcing the intended message of win-win outcomes.

The reports also employ verbs that indicate progress and action, such as “ongezeka” (increase), “tilia maanani” (pay great attention to), “imarisha” (consolidate), “himiza” (promote), and “funzana” (learn from each other). These choices aim to portray China–Africa cooperation as dynamic and continually advancing. Furthermore, adjectives and complements like “yenye mustakabali wa pamoja” (with a shared future), “wa kivitendo” (practical), and “nyanja mbalimbali” (various fields) are carefully included to underline China’s respect for Africa and to frame the partnership as inclusive and progressive.

Besides “China na Afrika” (China and Africa), the discourse of reports on China and other African countries is also worth discussing. Table 5 shows some concordance results describing “China” with Kenya, Tanzania and DRC (Democratic Republic of Congo).

From the table, it can be observed that “kibalozi” (diplomatic) and “uhusiano” (relationship) appear frequently, indicating that China highly values maintaining and developing diplomatic relations with East African countries. Frequent mentions of terms like “kibalozi” (diplomatic) and “uhusiano” (relationship) indicate a deliberate focus on highlighting the importance China places on maintaining and developing these relationships. The reports characterize China’s relationships with Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo as both partnerships (“wenzi”) and friendships (“marafiki”), presenting a dual narrative. On a macro level, these reports underscore the long-term stability of these relationships, while on a micro level, they symbolize the deep bonds of friendship between the peoples of these nations. CRI recognizes the friendship and strong ties between China and African countries as demonstrated in Example 1, and emphasizes these close relationships through specific lexical choices.Example 1:

Bw. Wang Yi amesema, tangu kuanzishwa kwa uhusiano wa kibalozi, China na Tanzania zimekuwa marafiki na wenzi wazuri ambao wanaheshimiana, kuaminiana na kujiendeleza kwa pamoja. Ameongeza kuwa anapenda kushirikiana na mwenzake wa Tanzania, kuimarisha mazungumzo na ushirkiano kati ya wizara za mambo ya nje za China na Tanzania, kuhimiza kutekeleza maoni makuu ya pamoja yaliyofikiwa na marais wa nchi hizo mbili, na kutoa mchango zaidi kwa ajili ya maendeleo endelevu ya uhusiano wa wenzi wa kimkakati wa pande zote kati ya China na Tanzania. (CRI’s Swahili report, 28 April 2024)

Mr. Wang Yi stated that since the establishment of diplomatic relations, China and Tanzania have been good friends and partners who respect each other, trust one another, and develop together. He added that he looks forward to working with his Tanzanian counterpart to strengthen dialogue and cooperation between the foreign ministries of China and Tanzania, promote the implementation of the key consensus reached by the presidents of the two countries, and make greater contributions to the sustainable development of the comprehensive strategic partnership between China and Tanzania. (English translation)

The “Belt and Road Initiative” (Pendekezo la Ukanda Mmoja, Njia Moja) serves as a focal point in these reports, with CRI emphasizing its role in strategic cooperation (“ushirikiano wa kimkakati”) between China and East African nations. Collocates such as “nufaisha” (be beneficial to), “panua” (expand), and “maendeleo makubwa” (great achievements) emphasize the mutual benefits and developmental opportunities arising from this collaboration. When it comes to the context, it can be observed that CRI has not only seen the progress of the “Belt and Road Initiative”, but also highlighted its significant status in China–Africa cooperation (see Example 2). These lexical expressions are carefully selected to highlight the depth and scope of China’s cooperative efforts in the region, and it demonstrates CRI aims to emphasize the mutual achievement and China’s role in China–Africa cooperation to African audiences.Example 2:

Amesema Ujenzi wa pamoja wa “Ukanda Mmoja, Njia Moja” kati ya China na Kenya umepata maendeleo makubwa, ukiongoza katika ushirikiano kati ya China na Afrika, kuweka mfano wa kuigwa na kutoa mchango mkubwa katika kujenga jumuiya yenye hatma ya pamoja kati ya China na Afrika. (CRI’s Swahili report, 15 December 2023)

He said that the joint construction of the “Belt and Road Initiative” between China and Kenya has made significant progress, leading the way in China-Africa cooperation, setting an example to follow, and making a major contribution to building a “Community with a shared future between China and Africa”. (English translation.)

Overall, the text production process reflects effort by CRI to construct a narrative that aligns with China’s strategic goals in Africa. By emphasizing key areas of cooperation, selecting language that conveys mutual benefit and progress and framing the relationship as inclusive and forward-looking, these reports aim to shape a positive perception of China–Africa relations and garner public support for deeper collaboration.

5 Discussion

6 Conclusions

By conducting a corpus-based CDA, this paper examines content related to China–Africa relations in the Swahili broadcasts of China Radio International (CRI) and initiates a corpus analysis from a critical discourse perspective. The analysis of high-frequency wordlist, trigram clusters and concordance lines reveals CRI constructs discourse around China’s active role in fostering China–Africa cooperation. CRI’s reports use positive vocabulary to express favorable evaluations and supportive attitudes towards China–Africa cooperation, showcasing China’s positive image as a responsible global player strengthening international ties.

Further corpus-based analysis indicates that economic trade, cultural exchange, and political diplomacy are focal areas of China–Africa cooperation, portraying China’s cooperative and friendly role in China–Africa relationship. However, there are deficiencies in the diversity and balance of CRI’s reporting. On one hand, the coverage predominantly highlights positive cooperative relationships while lacking sufficient discussion on challenges and controversies in the process; on the other hand, the persistent use of positive language and the strong emphasis on China’s role may inadvertently create an imbalanced portrayal, potentially influencing how China’s image is perceived in Africa. Hence, in the future, Chinese Swahili media should ensure a comprehensive discussion in external discourse construction, avoiding an emphasis solely on positive aspects while neglecting other dimensions of events.

This study provides a new analytical direction by focusing on the construction of China’s image within the news discourse of indigenous African language. To enhance the effectiveness of China–Africa engagement, Chinese media should not only develop a deeper and comprehensive understanding of China’s policies towards Africa and clearly define the specific contours of China’s national image construction in Africa, but also refine the framework of China’s image construction in African discourse. Fostering a more localized approach by incorporating African perspectives can improve African audiences’ understanding of China.

Additionally, the influence of Chinese Swahili media in Africa remains limited compared to Western media, highlighting the need to expand China’s discourse influence in African media landscapes. The current availability of Chinese media corpus is insufficient for a thorough analysis of China’s national image in Africa. Subsequent studies should consider developing a parallel corpus of native Swahili media to facilitate comparative studies, thereby enriching the understanding of China’s representation in Africa from multiple perspectives.