Home Religion, Bible & Theology The First Cavalries in the Ancient Near East
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

The First Cavalries in the Ancient Near East

  • Benjamin M. Sullivan EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: October 30, 2025
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill

Abstract

As a causative factor in premodern history, it is hard to overrate the significance of cavalry, the organized use, that is, of skilled riders in mounted warfare. Yet the origins of cavalry have garnered scant attention lately, at least among historians of the ancient Near East. The reasons for this neglect are complex, but the essential cause is that military historians, once a plentiful group, now make up only a tiny band within the academy. Cavalry’s origins therefore remain murky. A prevailing theory, the “Early Steppe Riders Thesis,” supposes that good military riding appeared as early as the fourth millennium B.C. on the steppes of Eurasia. The minority theory (the “Iron Age Near East Thesis”) has cavalry evolving from chariotry in the Iron Age Near East. The present essay uses this larger debate as a springboard, but its focus is narrower. Its aim is to establish when, where, and under what circumstances cavalry rose in the ancient Near East. I exploit new finds and reexamine known evidence, both written and representational, from Assyria, Urarṭu, and the Syro-Anatolian Culture Complex (SACC). I argue that the big changes first occurred not in Assyria, or Urarṭu (as a minority of Iron Age Near East Thesis scholars have held), but among the Syro-Anatolian polities. After glimpses of Middle Bronze Age riding in Syria, true cavalries are manifest by the second half of the tenth century in SACC. If accepted, these conclusions could rectify misconceptions about the Syro-Anatolian Kulturraum as militarily passive and sterile and could provide a solider basis for judging the place of the Near East in the larger conversation about the world-historical origins of cavalry.


Corresponding author: Benjamin M. Sullivan, Department of History, University of California Riverside, Riverside, USA, E-mail:

References

Altaweel, Mark, Anke Marsh, Simone Mühl, Olivier Nieuwenhuyse, Karen Radner, Rasheed Kamal, et al.. 2012. “New Investigations in the Environment, History, and Archaeology of the Iraqi Hilly Flanks: Shahrizor Survey Project, 2009–2011.” Iraq 74: 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021088900000231.Search in Google Scholar

Anderson, John K. 1961. Ancient Greek Horsemanship. Berkeley: University of California Press.10.1525/9780520326453Search in Google Scholar

Archer, Robin. 2010. “Chariotry to Cavalry: Developments in the Early First Millennium.” In New Perspectives in Ancient Warfare, edited by Grant G. Fagan, and Matthew Trundle, 57–79. History of Warfare 59. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/ej.9789004185982.i-391.14Search in Google Scholar

Beck, Ulrike, Mayke Wagner, Li Xiao, Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst, and Pavel E. Tarasov. 2014. “The Invention of Trousers and its Likely Affiliation with Horseback Riding and Mobility: A Case Study of Late 2nd Millennium BC Finds from Turfan in Eastern Central Asia.” Quaternary International 348: 224–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.04.056.Search in Google Scholar

Belis, Alexis M., and Henry P. Colburn. 2020. “An Urartian Belt in the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Origins of the Parthian Shot.” Getty Research Journal 12: 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1086/708319.Search in Google Scholar

Bell, Gertrude M. L. 1910. “The East Bank of the Euphrates from Tel Ahmar to Hit.” The Geographical Journal 36: 513–37. https://doi.org/10.2307/1777340.Search in Google Scholar

Bodi, Daniel. 2017. “The Mustering of Tribes for Battle in 1 Samuel 11 and in ARM II 48 and the Donkey as the Hebrew Royal Symbol in Light of Amorite Customs.” Revue internationale d’histoire militaire ancienne 5: 7–32.Search in Google Scholar

Bossert, Helmuth T. 1951. Altsyrien: Kunst und Handwerk in Cypern, Syrien, Palästina, Transjordanien und Arabien von den Anfängen bis zum völligen Aufgehen in der griechisch- römischen Kultur. Die ältesten Kulturen des Mittelmeerkreises 3. Tübingen: Verlag Ernst Wasmuth.Search in Google Scholar

Bunnens, Guy. 2015. “Confrontation, Emulation and Ethno-genesis of the Aramaeans in Iron Age Syria.” In In Search for Aram and Israel: Politics, Culture, and Identity, edited by Omer Sergi, Manfred Oeming, J. Izaak, and de Hulster, 253–80. ORA 20. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.Search in Google Scholar

Çifçi, A. 2017. The Socio-Economic Organisation of the Urartian Kingdom. CANE 89. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/9789004347595Search in Google Scholar

Curtis, John E., and Nigel Tallis, eds. 2008. The Balawat Gates of Ashurnasirpal II. London: The British Museum Press.Search in Google Scholar

d’Alfonso, Lorenzo. 2019. “War in Anatolia in the Post-Hittite Period: The Anatolian Hieroglyphic Inscription of Topada Revised.” JCS 71: 133–52. https://doi.org/10.1086/703857.Search in Google Scholar

Dalley, S. 1985. “Foreign Chariotry and Cavalry in the Armies of Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II.” Iraq 47: 31–48. https://doi.org/10.2307/4200230.Search in Google Scholar

Denison, G. T. 1877. A History of Cavalry from the Earliest Times with Lessons for the Future. London: Macmillan.10.5962/bhl.title.38256Search in Google Scholar

Dezső, Tamás. 2012. The Assyrian Army, I: The Structure of the Neo-Assyrian Army as Reconstructed from the Assyrian Palace Reliefs and Cuneiform Sources, 2. Cavalry and Chariotry. Antiqua et Orientalia 3. Budapest: Eötvös University Press.Search in Google Scholar

DiMarco, Louis A. 2008. War Horse: A History of the Military Horse and Rider. Yardley, PA: Westholme.Search in Google Scholar

Dornauer, A. A. 2010. “Die Geschichte von Gūzāna im Lichte der schriftlichen Zeugnisse.” In Tell Halaf: Im Krieg Zerstörte Denkmäler Und ihre Restaurierung, edited by Nadja Cholidis, and Lutz Martin, 47–67. Tell Halaf 5. Berlin: de Gruyter.Search in Google Scholar

Drews, Robert. 2004. Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe. London/New York: Routledge.10.4324/9780203389928Search in Google Scholar

Drews, Robert. 2017. Militarism and the Indo-Europeanizing of Europe. London/New York: Routledge.10.4324/9781315270555Search in Google Scholar

Edmonds, Alexander Johannes. 2019. “A People without Borders? Tracing the Shifting Identities and Territorialities of the Ahlameans.” In Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th–8th Centuries B.C.E., edited by Jan Dušek, and Jana Mynářová, 26–62. CHANE 101. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/9789004398535_003Search in Google Scholar

Eidem, Jesper. 1991. “The Tell Leilan Archives 1987.” Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale 85: 109–35.Search in Google Scholar

Eidem, Jesper. 2010. The Royal Archives from Tell Leilan. Old Babylonian Letters and Treaties from the Eastern Lower Town Palace. Yale Tell Leilan Research 2. New Haven: Yale University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Ferrill, Arthur. 1997. The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Search in Google Scholar

Finkelstein, Jacob J. 1953. “Cuneiform Texts from Tell Billa.” JCS 7: 111–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/1359528.Search in Google Scholar

Frame, Grant. 2021. The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC). Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period, Vol. 2. University Park, PA: Eisenbrauns. (=RINAP 2).10.1515/9781646021499Search in Google Scholar

Fuchs, Andreas. 2011a. “Zur Geschichte von Gūzāna.” In Die Geretteten Götter aus dem Palast vom Tell Halaf, edited by Nadja Cholidis, and Lutz Martin, 353–8. Regensburg: Schnell and Steiner.Search in Google Scholar

Fuchs, Andreas. 2011b. “Assyria at War: Strategy and Conduct.” In The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture, edited by Karen Radner, and Eleanor Robson, 380–401. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199557301.013.0018Search in Google Scholar

Gaebel, Robert E. 2002. Cavalry Operations in the Ancient Greek World. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Search in Google Scholar

Gat, Azar. 2006. War in Human Civilization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Gilibert, Alessandra. 2011. Syro-Hittite Monumental Art and the Archaeology of Performance: The Stone Reliefs at Carchemish and Zincirli in the Earlier First Millenium BCE. Topoi. Berlin Studies of the Ancient World 2. Berlin: de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110222265Search in Google Scholar

Gilibert, Alessandra. 2013. “Death, Amusement, and the City: Civic Spectacles and the Theatre Palace of Kapara, king of Gūzāna.” KASKAL 10: 36–68.Search in Google Scholar

Goedegebuure, Petra, Theo van den Hout, James F. Osborne, Michele Massa, Christoph Bachhuber, and Fatma Şahin. 2020. “TÜRKMEN-KARAHÖYÜK 1: A New Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscription from Great King Hartapu, Son of Mursili, Conqueror of Phrygia.” AS 70: 29–44.10.1017/S0066154620000022Search in Google Scholar

Grayson, A. Kirk. 1991. Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC I (1114–859 BC), Volume 2. The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods. (=RIMA 2 when only the texts themselves are referred to).10.3138/9781442671089Search in Google Scholar

Grayson, A. Kirk. 1996. Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC II (858–745 BC). The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods, Vol. 3. (=RIMA 3).10.3138/9781442671072Search in Google Scholar

Guichard, Michaël. 2014. L’épopée de Zimrī-Līm. Mémoires de Nabu 16. Florilegium Marianum 14. Paris: Société pour l’Étude du Proche-Orient Ancien.Search in Google Scholar

Hall, H. R. 1928. Babylonian and Assyrian Sculpture in the British Museum. Paris/Brussels: Les Éditions G. Van Oest.Search in Google Scholar

Hamblin, William J. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. London: Routledge.10.4324/9780203965566Search in Google Scholar

Hawkins, J. David, and Mark Weeden. 2021. “The New Inscription from Türkmenkarahöyük and its Historical Context.” AoF 48: 384–99.10.1515/aofo-2021-0015Search in Google Scholar

Hawkins, J. David. 1979. “Some Historical Problems of the Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions.” AS 29: 153–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/3642736.Search in Google Scholar

Hawkins, J. David. 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume 1. Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Untersuchungen zur indogermanischen Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft 8.1. Berlin: de Gruyter. (=CHLI I).Search in Google Scholar

Hawkins, J. David. 2024. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume 3. Inscriptions of the Hittite Empire and New Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Berlin: de Gruyter. (=CHLI III when only the texts themselves are referred to).10.1515/9783110778854Search in Google Scholar

Herles, Michael. 2007. “Zur geographischen Einordnung der aḫlamû—eine Bestandsaufnahme.” AoF 34: 319–41. https://doi.org/10.1524/aofo.2007.0011.Search in Google Scholar

Herrmann, Virginia R., Theo van den Hout, and Ahmet Beyazlar. 2016. “A New Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscription from Pancarlı Höyük: Language and Power in Early Iron Age Samʾal-YʾDY.” JNES 75: 53–70.10.1086/684835Search in Google Scholar

Herrmann, Virginia R. 2017. “Appropriation and Emulation in the Earliest Sculptures from Zincirli (Iron Age Samʾal).” AJA 121: 237–74. https://doi.org/10.3764/aja.121.2.0237.Search in Google Scholar

Hogarth, David G. 1909. “Carchemish and its Neighbourhood.” Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 2: 165–84.Search in Google Scholar

Hogarth, David G. 1926. Kings of the Hittites. The Schweich Lectures 1924. London: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Hornung, Erik, Rolf Krauss, and David A. Warburton, eds. 2006. Ancient Egyptian Chronology. HdO 83. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/9789047404002Search in Google Scholar

Ivantchik, Askold. 2008. “Le ‘Parthian Shot,’ cinquante ans après Rostovtzeff.” In Michel Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff, edited by Jean Andreau and Wladimir Berelowitch, 177–90. Pragmateiai 14. Bari: Edipuglia.Search in Google Scholar

Keegan, John. 1993. A History of Warfare. New York: Vintage.Search in Google Scholar

Kerekes, Miklós. 2017. “The Early Neo-Assyrian Provincial Army of Gūzāna.” Anadolu araştırmaları 20: 37–76.Search in Google Scholar

King, Leonard William. 1915. Bronze Reliefs from the Gates of Shalmaneser, King of Assyria B.C. 860–825. London: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Leonard-Fleckman, Mahri. 2018. “The Bīt X Formula in Assyrian Documentation and Aramaean Social Structure.” Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel 7: 140–71.10.1628/hebai-2018-0012Search in Google Scholar

Lewy, Hildegard. 1956. “The Historical Background of the Correspondence of Baḫdi- Lim.” Orientalia 25: 324–52.Search in Google Scholar

Lipiński, Edward. 2000. The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion. OLA 100. Leuven: Peeters.Search in Google Scholar

Littauer, Mary A., and Joost H. Crouwel. 1979. Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East. Leiden: Brill.Search in Google Scholar

Liverani, Mario. 1992. Topographical Analysis. Vol. 2 of Studies on the Annals of Ashurnasirpal II. Quaderni di Geografica Storica 4. Rome: Università di Roma “La Sapienza”.Search in Google Scholar

Marchetti, Nicolò, and Hasan Peker. 2018. “The Stele of Kubaba by Kamani and the Kings of Karkemish in the 9th Century BC.” ZA 108: 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1515/za-2018-0006.Search in Google Scholar

Marf, Dlshad A. 2019. “The Aramaean Presence in the Northern Zagros during the Middle and Neo-Assyrian Periods.” In Aramaean Borders: Defining Aramaean Territories in the 10th– 8th Centuries B.C.E., edited by Jan Dušek and Jana Mynářová, 78–91. CHANE 101. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/9789004398535_005Search in Google Scholar

Marriott, John, and Karen Radner. 2015. “Sustaining the Assyrian Army among Friends and Enemies in 714 BCE.” JCS 67: 127–43, https://doi.org/10.5615/jcunestud.67.2015.0127.Search in Google Scholar

McMahon, Augusta. 2009. “The Lion, the King and the Cage: Late Chalcolithic Iconography and Ideology in Northern Mesopotamia.” Iraq 115–24, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021088900000772.Search in Google Scholar

Meuszyński, Janusz. 1975. “The Throne-Room of Assurnasirpal II (Room B in the North-West Palace at Nimrud).” In ZA 64: 51–73.10.1515/zava.1975.64.1.51Search in Google Scholar

Niehr, Herbert. 2014. “Introduction.” In The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria, edited by Herbert Niehr, 1–9. HdO 106. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/9789004229433_002Search in Google Scholar

Noble, Duncan. 1992. “Assyrian Chariotry and Cavalry.” SAAB 4: 61–8.Search in Google Scholar

Novák, Mirko. 2013. “Between the Musku and the Aramaeans: The Early History of Guzana/Tell Halaf.” In Across the Border: Late Bronze-Iron Age Relations Between Syria and Anatolia. Proceedings of a Symposium Held at the Research Center of Anatolian Studies, edited by K. A. Yener Suppl. 42. Leuven: Peeters. Istanbul: Koç University, 2010, 293–309.Search in Google Scholar

Novotny, Jamie. 2023. “The Assyrian Empire in Contact with the World.” In The Oxford History of the Ancient near East. Volume IV: The Age of Assyria, edited by Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, and D. T. Potts, 352–424. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oso/9780190687632.003.0039Search in Google Scholar

Oates, Joan. 2003. “A Note on the Early Evidence for Horse and the Riding of Equids in Western Asia.” In Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, edited by Marsha Levine, Colin Renfrew, and Katie Boyle, 115–25. McDonald Institute Monographs. Oxford: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Search in Google Scholar

Orthmann, Winfried. 1971. Untersuchungen zur späthethitischen Kunst. Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde 8. Bonn: Rudolph Habelt Verlag.Search in Google Scholar

Orthmann, Winfried. 2002. Die aramäisch-assyrische Stadt Guzana: ein Rückblick auf die Ausgrabungen Max von Oppenheims in Tell Halaf. Schriften der Max Freiherr von Oppenheim- Stiftung 15. Saarbrücken: Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag.Search in Google Scholar

Osborne, James F. 2021. The Syro-Anatolian City-States: An Iron Age Culture. Oxford Studies in the Archaeology of Ancient States. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oso/9780199315833.001.0001Search in Google Scholar

Pappi, Cinzia. 2012. “Assyrians at the Lower Zab.” In Leggo! Studies Presented to Frederick Mario Fales on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday, edited by Giovanni B. Lanfranchi, Daniele Morandi Bonacossi, Cinzia Pappi, and Simonetta Ponchia, 597–611. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.10.2307/jj.30625915.42Search in Google Scholar

Peker, Hasan. 2016. Texts from Karkemish I: Luwian Hieroglyphic Inscriptions from the 2011-2015 Excavations. OrientLab Series Maior 1. Bologna: Ante Quem.Search in Google Scholar

Postgate, John Nicholas. 2000. “The Assyrian Army at Zamua.” Iraq 62: 89–108, https://doi.org/10.2307/4200483.Search in Google Scholar

Pucci, Marina. 2015. “Founding and Planning a New Town: The Southern Town Gate at Zincirli.” In From the Treasures of Syria: Essays on Art and Archaeology in Honour of Stefania Mazzoni, edited by Paola Ciafardoni, and Deborah Giannessi, 35–74. PIHANS 126. Leiden: Netherlands Institute for the Near East.Search in Google Scholar

Radner, Karen. 2011. “Assyrians and Urartians.” In The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE), edited by Sharon Steadman, and Gregory McMahon, 734–51. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0033Search in Google Scholar

Reade, Julian E. 1985. “Texts and Sculptures from the North-West Palace, Nimrud.” Iraq 47: 203–14. https://doi.org/10.2307/4200240.Search in Google Scholar

Roemer, Jean. 1863. Cavalry: Its History, Management, and Uses in War. New York: Van Nostrand.Search in Google Scholar

Sader, Hélène. 2014. “History.” In The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria, edited by Herbert Niehr, 11–36. HdO 106. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/9789004229433_003Search in Google Scholar

Saggs, H. W. F. 1980. “The Land of Kirruri.” Iraq 42: 79–83. https://doi.org/10.2307/4200117.Search in Google Scholar

Sasson, Jack M. 2015 From the Mari Archives: An Anthology of Old Babylonian Letters. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.10.1515/9781575063768Search in Google Scholar

Schachner, Andreas. 2007. Bilder eines Weltreichs: Kunst- und kulturgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu den Verzierungen eines Tores aus Balawat (Imgur-Enlil) aus der Zeit von Shalmanassar III, König von Assyrien. Subartu 20. Turnhout: Brepols.Search in Google Scholar

Silva Castillo, J. R. 2005. “Nomadism Through the Ages.” In A Companion to the Ancient near East, edited by Daniel C. Snell, 126–40. Malden, MA: Wiley.10.1002/9780470997086.ch9Search in Google Scholar

Starke, Frank. 2001. “Reiterei. I. Alter Orient.” In Der Neue Pauly: Enzyklopädie der Antike, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, cols. 867–72. Band 10 Pol-Sal. Stuttgart/Weimar: Verlag J.B. Metzler.Search in Google Scholar

Sulimirski, Tadeusz. 1954. “Scythian Antiquities in Western Asia.” ArtAs 17: 282–318. https://doi.org/10.2307/3249059.Search in Google Scholar

Szuchman, Jeffrey. 2009. “Bit Zamani and Assyria.” Syria 86: 55–65. https://doi.org/10.4000/syria.511.Search in Google Scholar

Thompson, R. Campbell. 1912. “Til-Barsip and its Cuneiform Inscriptions.” PSBA 34: 66–74.Search in Google Scholar

Thureau-Dangin, François, and Maurice Dunand. 1936. Til Barsib. Paris: Paul Geuthner.Search in Google Scholar

Thureau-Dangin, François. 1912. Une Relation de La Huitième Campagne de Sargon (714 Av. J.-C.). Textes Cunéiformes, Musée Du Louvre 3. Paris: Paul Geuthner.Search in Google Scholar

Trimm, Charlie. 2017. Fighting for the King and the Gods: A Survey of Warfare in the Ancient Near East. Resources for Biblical Study 88. Atlanta: SBL Press.10.2307/j.ctt1vxm8cjSearch in Google Scholar

Ussishkin, David. 1967. “On the Dating of Some Groups of Reliefs from Carchemish and Til Barsib.” AS 17: 181–92. https://doi.org/10.2307/3642448.Search in Google Scholar

Valk, Jonathan. 2024. “Who Are the Aramaeans? A Selective Re-Examination of the Cuneiform Evidence for the Earliest Aramaeans.” In Ancient Western Asia Beyond the Paradigm of Collapse and Regeneration (1200-900 BCE): Proceedings of the NYU-PSL International Colloquium, Paris Institut National d’Histoire de l’Art, April 16–17, 2019, edited by Maria Grazia Masetti-Rouault, Ilaria Calini, Robert Hawley, and Lorenzo d’Alfonso, 411–42. New York: New York University Press.10.18574/nyu/9781479834648.003.0021Search in Google Scholar

von Luschan, Felix. 1902. Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli. Vol. 3. Thorsculpturen. Berlin: Druck und Verlag von Georg Reimer.Search in Google Scholar

Wimmer, Andreas, and Nina Glick Schiller. 2002. “Methodological Nationalism and Beyond: Nation-State Building, Migration, and the Social Sciences.” Global Networks 2: 301–34.10.1111/1471-0374.00043Search in Google Scholar

Yadin, Yigael. 1963. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands: In the Light of Archaeological Study. New York: McGraw-Hill.Search in Google Scholar

Younger, K. Lawson. 2016. A Political History of the Arameans: From their Origins to the End of their Polities. Archaeology and Biblical Studies, Vol. 13. Atlanta: SBL Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1g69w78.Search in Google Scholar

Zadok, Ran. 2002. “The Ethno-Linguistic Character of Northwestern Iran and Kurdistan in the Neo-Assyrian Period.” Iran 40: 89–151. https://doi.org/10.2307/4300620.Search in Google Scholar

Zadok, Ran. 2013. “Linguistic Groups in Iran.” In The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, edited by D. T. Potts, 407–22. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.013.0028Search in Google Scholar

Received: 2025-01-18
Accepted: 2025-10-08
Published Online: 2025-10-30
Published in Print: 2025-11-25

© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Downloaded on 5.12.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/janeh-2025-0002/html
Scroll to top button