Progressive vowel height harmony in Proto-Kikongo and Proto-Bantu
-
Heidi Goes
and
Koen Bostoen
Abstract
The systematic comparison of the different types of progressive Vowel Height Harmony (pVHH) attested within the Kikongo Language Cluster (KLC) leads to the conclusion that this common Bantu process of long-distance assimilation cannot be reconstructed to Proto-Kikongo. The ‘(a)symmetric-pVHH’ and ‘back-pVHH’ patterns, the two main and structurally different kinds of pVHH within the KLC, emerged independently and relatively late within two distinct subgroups, viz. South Kikongo and North Kikongo respectively. Moreover, the ‘(a)symmetric-pVHH’ pattern further spread from a South Kikongo focal area coinciding with the heartland of the Kongo kingdom to other parts of the KLC through contact-induced dialectal diffusion. Furthermore, the historical-comparative evidence from the KLC suggests that neither symmetric nor asymmetric pVHH should be reconstructed to Proto-Bantu, the most recent common ancestor of all Bantu languages.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Sebastian Dom, Hilde Gunnink and Birgit Ricquier for their feedback on a first draft of this article, and Gilles-Maurice de Schryver for his feedback on the last version. Special thanks go to Larry Hyman and Sara Pacchiarotti whose much appreciated critical readings led to a considerable revision and restructuring of the original draft. The usual disclaimers apply.
Appendix: Additional evidence for pVHH types within the KLC (see also Section 2)
1 Symmetric pVHH
Symmetric pVHH in South Kikongo from San Salvador (now Mbanza Kongo) (Bentley 1887)
| mon-ek-a | ‘appear’ |
| lemb-ek-a | ‘appease’ |
| tomb-ok-a | ‘ascend’ |
| vemb-ok-a | ‘go aside’ |
| lomb-ol-a | ‘blacken’ |
| kosom-on-a | ‘break to atoms’ |
Symmetric pVHH in Kisikongo (H16a) (Ndonga Mfuwa 1995)
| vóv-èl-à | ‘parler pour/au nom de’ | (speak for) |
| vónd-èl-à | ‘tuer pour’ | (kill for) |
| nón-èn-à | ‘ramasser pour’ | (pick up for) |
| lémb-èk-à | ‘adoucir’ | (soften) |
| nyóng-ón-òk-à | ‘se plaindre’ | (complain) |
| lómb-ól-òl-à | ‘barboter’ | (paddle, splash) |
| zyóng-òn-à | ‘pincer avec les ongles’ | (pinch with nails) |
| vév-òl-à | ‘alléger’ | (lighten) |
Symmetric pVHH in Kisolongo (Tavares 1915)
Applicative (default form -il)
| vov-el-a | ‘cantar’ | (sing) |
Impositive
| tel-ek-a | ‘levantar’ | (lift, raise) |
Causative (default form -is)
| kol-es-a | ‘activar, fazer crescer’ | (activate, make grow) |
| vov-es-a | ‘dizer’ | (say) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| kes-ok-a | ‘estar quebrado’ | (be broken) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| kes-on-a | ‘quebrar’ | (break) |
| sok-ol-a | ‘descarregar’ | (unload) |
| som-on-a | ‘desenfiar’ | (unravel) |
| bol-ol-ol-a | ‘chamar de novo’ | (call again) |
The only two exceptions in Tavares (1915):
| zeng-uk-a | ‘estar cortado’ | (be cut off) |
| tok-id-ik-a | ‘cansar’ | (tire, fatigue) |
Symmetric pVHH in Kizombo as reported by Carter and Makondekwa (1987)
Applicative (default form -il)
| kóomb-el-á | ‘sweep for’ |
| vóv-el-á | ‘talk to’ |
| zól-el-á | ‘want for’ |
Causative (default form -is)
| mok-és-a | ‘(make) talk to’ |
| vóv-es-á | ‘speak to, cause to speak’ |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| són-ek-à | ‘write’ |
| yond-ék-a | ‘steep, soak’ |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| vvengóm-ok-a | ‘clear’ |
| zzek-ok-a | ‘turn’ |
| kkòs-ok-á | ‘sit down’ |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| vév-ol-à | ‘relieve of burden’ |
| teétola | ‘remind’ |
Irregular symmetric pVHH in Kizombo as reported in Mpanzu (1994)
Applicative (default form -il)
| ték-íl-à | ‘vendre pour; puiser pour’ | (sell for, draw water for) | (no pVHH) |
| sós-íl-à | ‘chercher pour’ | (search for) | (no pVHH) |
Causative (default form -is)
| sóng-ód-ìs-à | ‘faire aiguiser’ | (make sharpen) | (partially pVHH) |
| sós-ís-à | ‘faire chercher’ | (make search) | (no pVHH) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| tél-ék-à | ‘mettre marmite sur feu’ | (put the kettle on the fire) | (pVHH) |
| tól-ék-à | ‘renverser’ | (overthrow) | (pVHH) |
| ték-ék-à | ‘courber’ | (bend) | (pVHH) |
| yék-ík-à | ‘donner l’appui’ | (give support) | (no pVHH) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| tól-ók-à | ‘se casser’ | (break) | (pVHH) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| yék-ól-à | ‘trahir’ | (betray) | (pVHH) |
| tól-ól-à | ‘se briser’ | (break, shatter) | (pVHH) |
Symmetric pVHH in Kindibu as reported in Coene (1960)
Applicative (default form -il)
| keng-el-el-a | ‘épier’ | (spy on) |
| leng-el-a | ‘se faner’ | (fade) |
| bok-el-a | ‘appeler’ | (call) |
| konk-el-a | ‘s’approcher’ | (approach one another) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| lemb-ek-a | ‘calmer’ | (calm down) |
| vwet-ek-a | ‘fléchir’ | (flex) |
| tong-ek-a | ‘dresser’ | (train) |
| son-ek-a | ‘écrire’ | (write) |
Causative (default form -is)
| kemb-es-a | ‘féliciter’ | (congratulate) |
| pemb-es-a | ‘blanchir’ | (whiten) |
| konk-es-a | ‘approcher’ | (approach) |
| yot-es-a | ‘circonscrire’ | (define, delimit) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| lem-ok-a | ‘courir’ | (run) |
| yel-ek-a | ‘déguster’ | (taste) |
| long-ok-a | ‘apprendre’ | (learn) |
| tomb-ok-a | ‘monter’ | (go up) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| lemv-ol-a | ‘apprivoiser’ | (tame) |
| tem-on-a | ‘civiliser’ | (civilize) |
| tol-ol-a | ‘casser’ | (break) |
| tob-ol-a | ‘trouer’ | (make a hole) |
Symmetric VHH in Cilaadi (Jacquot 1985)
Applicative (default form -il)
| temb-el-a | ‘vaciller’ | (flicker) |
| gleb-el-a | ‘se baigner’ | (bathe oneself) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| bond-ek-a | ‘mouiller’ | (make wet) |
Causative (default form -is)
| gleb-es-a | ‘baigner’ | (bathe someone) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| dek-ok-a | ‘être caché’ | (be hidden) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| fwok-ol-a | ‘coucher les herbes’ | (lay down the herbs) |
2 Back pVHH
Absence of front pVHH in Kikamba (Bouka 1989)
Applicative (default form -il)
| kwèèl-ìl-a | ‘marier pour’ | (marry for) |
| swèèk-ìl-a | ‘cacher pour’ | (hide for) |
| bònd-ìl-a | ‘adorer’ | (adore) |
| tòòn-ìl-a | ‘commencer pour’ | (begin for) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| tèl-ìk-a | ‘metttre au feu’ | (put on the fire) |
Causative (default form -is)
| lèm-ìs-a | ‘blesser’ | (injure) |
| dyèèng-ìs-a | ‘faire tourner’ | (make turn) |
| bòl-ìs-a | ‘faire pourrir’ | (make rot) |
| nók-ìs-a | ‘faire pleuvoir’ | (make rain) |
Regular back pVHH in Kikamba (KongoKing fieldwork 2016 by Guy Kouarata)
Separative (default forms of the separative suffixes are -uk and -ul)
| ku-tob-ók-a | ‘se percer’ | (to be pierced) |
| ku-sok-on-á | ‘détacher’ | (to detach) |
| ku-tob-ol-á | ‘percer’ | (to pierce) |
| ku-tel-ól-a kisá | ‘enlever une casserole du feu’ | (to take a pot from the fire) |
| ku-syón-on-a | ‘retirer’ | (to take out) |
| ku-kóh-ol-a | ‘tousser’ | (to cough) |
Regular back pVHH in Kisundi (KongoKing fieldwork 2016 by Guy Kouarata)
Separative (default forms of the separative suffixes are -uk and -ul, respectively)
| ku-béél-ók-a | ‘se rétablir, guérir’ | (to recover, heal) |
| kut-ob-ól-a | ‘percer’ | (to pierce) |
| ku-koh-ól-a | ‘tousser’ | (to cough) |
| ku-sok-ón-a lungási | ‘détacher une noix de la grappe’ | (to detach a nut from the cluster) |
Applicative and causative (default forms of the applicative and causative suffixes are -il and -is, respectively)
| ku-kéék-il-a | ‘caqueter’ | (to cackle) |
| ku-yénd-il-a | ‘aller pour’ | (to go for) |
| ku-bééd-is-a | ‘rendre malade’ | (to make sick) |
| ku-bóóng-is-a | ‘faire prendre’ | (to make take) |
3 Irregularly occurring pVHH
Instances of pVHH in 19th c. West Kikongo from Kakongo (Le Louët 1890)
| zengh-el-el-a | ‘accrocher’ | (hang on, hook on) |
| vek-esi-a | ‘accompagner’ | (accompany) |
| toss-ol-a | ‘tousser’ | (cough) |
| viong-ol-a | ‘tatouer’ | (tattoo) |
Absence of pVHH in 19th c. West Kikongo from Kakongo (Le Louët 1890)
Applicative (default form -il)
| kol-il-a | ‘empirer’ | (worsen) |
| lengh-il-a | ‘faner’ | (fade) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| lemb-ik-a | ‘apaiser, caresser’ | (calm, caress) |
| tent-ik-a | ‘appliquer, superposer’ | (apply, superpose) |
| kol-ik-a | ‘corriger’ | (correct) |
Causative (default form -isy<issi>)
| tok-issi-a | ‘faire bouillir’ | (boil) |
| lengh-issi-a | ‘obséder’ | (obsess) |
Neuter (default form -ik)
| ki mon-ik-a | ‘apparaître, se montrer’ | (appear) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| lel-uk-a | ‘cuire à moitié’ | (cook half) |
| los-uk-a | ‘beugler, crier’ | (bawl, cry) |
| non-uk-a | ‘s’allonger’ | (lie down) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| song-ul-a | ‘acérer, appointer’ | (make into a point, sharpen) |
| leng-ul-a | ‘aiguiser’ | (sharpen) |
| dong-ul-a m’eno | ‘curer les dents’ | (pick one’s teeth) |
Irregular pVHH in 20th c. Iwoyo (Mingas 1994)
Presence of pVHH
| wènd-èl-á | ‘aller vers’ | (go to) |
| vuét-él-él-á | ‘puiser (intensivement)’ | (draw water intensively) |
| vònd-èl-à | ‘tuer avec’ | (kill with) |
| nòng-èl-á | ‘recueillir avec, ramasser avec’ | (welcome with, collect with) |
| lèmb-ék-èl-á | ‘dormir’ | (sleep) |
| kòmb-èl-èl-à | ‘balayer (intensivement)’ | (sweep intensively) |
| mon-es-an-a | ‘se montrer l’un l’autre’ | (show one another) |
| zol-es-an-a | ‘s’entre-aimer’ | (love one another) |
| lòng-ès-à | ‘aider à enseigner’ | (help to teach) |
| kót-ès-à | ‘aider à entrer’ | (help/make enter) |
Absence of pVHH
| yob-il-a | ‘se baigner’ | (bathe oneself) |
| téb-ìl-à | ‘mordre’ | (bite) |
| tòb-ùk-à | ‘être troué’ | (be holed) |
| bèl-ùl-a | ‘guérir’ | (cure) |
| lés-ùl-à | ‘éblouir’ | (dazzle) |
| bót-ùl-a | ‘soustraire’ | (subtract) |
| tòb-ùl-à | ‘trouer’ | (pit) |
Irregular pVHH in 20th c. Iwoyo (Anônimo 1948)
Presence of pVHH
| des-ok-el-a | ‘criticar’ | (criticize) |
| temb-el-a | ‘cincar’ | (flounder) |
| bond-el-el-a | ‘implorar’ | (beg) |
| tol-ok-el-a | ‘acudir’ | (respond) |
| kol-ek-a | ‘habituar’ | (accustom) |
| kond-el-ek-a | ‘torcer’ | (twist) |
| vemb-ok-a | ‘desgarrar’ | (stray) |
| neng-om-ok-a | ‘descer’ | (go down) |
| vek-om-on-a | ‘soprar’ | (blow) |
| kok-om-on-a | ‘induzir’ | (introduce) |
| bot-ol-a | ‘omitir’ | (omit) |
| bel-ok-a ko | ‘incuravel’ | (incurable) |
| long-ok-a | ‘ensaiar’ | (teach) |
| zol-ok-a | ‘[ser] amável’ | ([be] lovable) |
| kot-ok-a | ‘acordar’ | (wake up) |
| bel-ek-a | ‘arrecadar’ | (collect) |
| lemb-ek-a | ‘apaziguar’ | (appease) |
| mon-ek-a | ‘aparecer’ | (appear) |
| son-ek-a | ‘[fazer] nota[s]’ | (make notes, write) |
Absence of pVHH
| bes-ul-ik-a | ‘emendar’ | (amend) |
| kond-ik-a | ‘obstar’ | (prevent) |
| sek-uk-a | ‘converter’ | (convert) |
| tend-uk-a | ‘luzir’ | (sparkle) |
| loz-uk-a | ‘instalar’ | (click) |
| sens-ul-a | ‘inspirar’ | (inspire) |
| kenk-un-a | ‘reduzir’ | (reduce) |
| kot-ul-a | ‘despertar’ | (awaken) |
No pVHH in 21th c. Iwoyo (IW), Ikwakongo (IKW) and/or Ikoci (KC) (Fieldwork 2018 by the first author) [18]
| bot-ulw-a | ‘tirar’ | (take away, remove) (IW, KC) |
| bel-ukw-a | ‘currar’ | (cure) (IW, KC) |
| long-ukw-a | ‘apprender’ | (teach) (IW, KC) |
| zol-ukw-a | ‘ser amado’ | ([be] lovable) (IW) |
| kot-ukw-a | ‘acordar’ | (wake up) (IW, IKW) |
| bel-ik-a | ‘arrecadar’ | (collect) (IW) |
| lemb-iky-a | ‘apaziguar’ | (appease) (IW, IKW) |
| mon-ik-a | ‘aparecer’ | (appear) (IW, IKW, KC) |
| son-ik-a | ‘escrever’ | (write) (IW, IKW, KC) |
| konz-ulw-a | ‘crear individuo, elemento’ | (create individual, element) (KC) |
| lob-ukw-a | ‘saltar’ | (jump) (KC) |
Irregular pVHH in Dihungu (KongoKing Fieldwork 2015 by the first author)
Applicative (default form -il)
| bek-el-a | ‘esperar por’ | (wait for) |
| song-el-a | ‘mostrar’ | (show) |
| zeng-il-a | ‘cortar para’ | (cut for) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| son-ek-a | ‘escrever’ | (write) |
Causative (default form -is)
| sow-ek-es-a | ‘trocar’ | (exchange) |
| seh-es-a | ‘fazer rir’ | (make laugh) |
| simb-is-a | ‘fazer asegurar’ | (make secure) |
| kot-is-a | ‘fazer entrar’ | (make enter) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| long-ok-a | ‘apprender’ | (learn) |
| tomb-ok-a | ‘subir’ | (go down) |
| bel-uk-a | ‘voltar’ | (return) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| teng-ol-a | ‘destampar’ | (uncap) |
Irregular pVHH in Kitsootso (KongoKing Fieldwork 2015 by the first author)
Applicative (default form -il)
| zeeng-il-a | ‘cortar para’ | (cut for) |
| kwend-il-a | ‘buscar por’ | (go, search for) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| son-ek-a | ‘escrever’ | (write) |
Causative (default form -is)
| lok-es-a | ‘limpar’ | (to clean) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| vev-ok-a | ‘estar fácil’ | (to be easy) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| vum-un-a | ‘grelhar, frittar’ | (fry) |
4 No pVHH
No pVHH in Kilaadi (Dhienda 1972)
Applicative (default form -il)
| leem-in | ‘briller pour’ | (shine for someone) |
| nook-in | ‘être mouillé par la pluie’ | (become wet by the rain) |
Causative (default form -is)
| sek-ud | ‘se faire renverser’ | (get knocked down) |
| kook-is | ‘diminuer, faire descendre’ | (lessen, make descend) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| kot-uk | ‘sortir’ | (go out) |
| long-uk | ‘apprendre’ | (learn) |
| beel-uk | être guéri’ | (be healed) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| tob-ul | ‘percer’ | (pierce) |
| beel-ul | ‘guérir’ | (heal) |
Absence of pVHH in Kisuku (Dhienda 1972; Piper 1977)
Applicative (default form -il; -id in front of i)
| lek-id-il | ‘lauschen’ | (listen) |
| komb-id-id | ‘vollständig reinigen’ | (clean intensively) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| beet-ik | ‘klopfen’ | (knock) |
| tet-ik | ‘aufrecht hinstellen’ | (place upright) |
| zemb-ik | ‘aufhängen’ | (hang up) |
| bot-ik | ‘taufen, segnen’ | (baptize, bless) |
| tot-ik | ‘sich auf den Weg Machen’ | (get going) |
Causative (default form -is)
| son-ik-is | ‘schreiben lassen’ | (make write) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| tomb-uk | ‘hinaufsteigen’ | (ascend) |
| sot-uk | ‘springen’ | (jump) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| kok-ud | ‘gackern’ | (cackle) |
| soong-ud | ‘anspitzen’ | (sharpen) |
Absence of pVHH in Kisamba (Van Acker 2016)
Applicative (default form -il; -id in front of i)
| ku-kéng-id-il-a | ‘surveiller’ | (to oversee, supervise, watch) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| ku-lémb-ik-a | ‘apaiser’ | (to appease) |
Causative (default form -is)
| ku-déf-ís-a | ‘prêter’ | (to lend) |
| ku-thók-ís-a | ‘bouillir’ | (to cook) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| ku-sóng-ul-a | ‘tailler en pointe’ | (to sharpen) |
| ku-tób-ul-a | ‘percer’ | (to pierce) |
Absence of pVHH in Yipunu (Mavoungou and Plumel 2010)
Applicative (default form -il)
| u-dek-il-a | ‘couler (pour)’ | (to flow, run for) |
| u-ghobul-il-a | ‘venir quelqu’un en aide’ | (to come to rescue someone) |
Impositive (default form -igh)
| u-bents-igh-a | ‘(se) déchirer; fendre; diviser’ | (to tear, cleave, divide) |
| u-ghob-igh-a | ‘être accroché, suspend’ | (to be suspended, pending) |
Causative (default form -is)
| u-séék-ís-a | ‘aiguiser’ | (to sharpen) |
| u-rogh-is-i | ‘faire grossir; faire grandir’ | (to make fat, big) |
Neuter (default form -igh)
| u-mon-igh-a | ‘être visible; se montrer’ | (to be visible, show oneself) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -ugh)
| u-teb-ugh-a | ‘se lever (en parlant du jour)’ | (to rise) |
| u-kond-ugh-a | ‘rendre courbe, tordre’ | (to bend, twist) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| u-lemb-ul-a | ‘tousser’ | (to cough) |
| u-ghomb-ul-a | ‘balayer; nettoyer’ | (to sweep, clean) |
Absence of pVHH in Kiyombe (De Grauwe 2009)
Applicative (default form -il)
| téémb-íl-a | ‘marcher sans but’ | (walk without goal) |
| yoob-íl-a | ‘se laver, se baigner’ | (wash oneself, bathe, take a bath) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| léém-ík-a | ‘abattre, vaincre, humilier’ | (knock down, defeat, humiliate) |
| yoob-ík-a | ‘accrocher’ | (hang, hook up) |
Causative (default form -is)
| beed-ik-ís-a | ‘faire apprêter, approcher qch.’ | (make ready, approach something) |
| soomb-ik-ís-a | ‘échanger’ | (exchange) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| sóók-úk-a | ‘se détacher’ | (break off) |
| tóót-úk-a | ‘arriver; paraître’ | (arrive, appear) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| dyéés-úl-a | ‘déshonorer’ | (dishonour) |
| téél-úl-a | ‘enlever du feu une casserole’ | (take a pot from the fire) |
Absence of front pVHH in Kisundi-Kimongo (N’landu Kitambika 1994)
| kù-yòb-ìl-á | ‘se laver’ | (to wash oneself) |
| kù-yònz-ìk-á | ‘rassembler’ | (to gather) |
| kù-fwéng-ís-à | ‘cuire mal (aliments)’ | (to cook badly) |
| kù-fyétík-ís-à | ‘serrer contre quelque chose’ | (to squeeze against something) |
| kù-hèm-ún-à | ‘souffler doucement’ | (to blow softly) |
Absence of pVHH in Kihangala (Nkouanda 1997)
Applicative (default form -il)
| tòŋg-ìm-ìn-á | ‘épier’ | (spy on) |
| dòn-ìk-ìl-á | ‘écrire pour’ | (write for) |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| kwès-ìk-á | ‘consolider’ | (consolidate) |
| kònd-ìk-á | ‘faire incliner’ | (make incline) |
Causative (default form -is)
| sèm-ìs-á | ‘nettoyer’ | (clean) |
| kòsìk-ìs-á | ‘écraser | (crush) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| nòn-ùk-á | ‘grandir’ | (grow) |
| kèk-ùm-ùk-á | ‘racler la gorge’ | (clear the throat) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| fyòːw-ùl-á | ‘se confesser’ | (go to confession) |
Absence of extension lowering + final root vowel copying in Kikunyi (KongoKing fieldwork 2016 by Guy Kouarata)
Causative (default form -is)
| ku-kweed-is-é | ‘se faire marier’ | (to get married) |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -uk)
| ku-beel-uk-e | ‘guérir’ | (to recover) |
| ku-tób-uk-o | ‘se percer’ | (to pierce oneself) |
| ku-lemf-uk-é | ‘s’humilier, obéir, être humble’ | (to humiliate, to obey, to be humble) |
Separative (transitive) (default form -ul)
| ku-tob-ul-ó | ‘percer’ | (to pierce) |
| ku-kóóh-ul-o | ‘tousser’ | (to cough) |
Absence of pVHH in Kimanyanga (Laman 1912)
Applicative (default form -il)
| vev-il-a | ‘blow gently, fan slowly’ |
| long-il-a | ‘practice’ |
Impositive (default form -ik)
| bemb-ik-a | ‘fold, bend’ |
| son-ik-a | ‘write’ |
Causative (default form -is)
| ved-is-a | ‘cleanse’ |
| vod-is-a | ‘cause to commit’ |
Separative (intransitive) (default form -ul)
| teng-uk-a | ‘be scattered about’ |
| tol-uk-a | ‘be broken’ |
Separative (transitive) (default form -uk)
| seb-ul-a | ‘change, translate’ |
| bond-ul-a | ‘knock over, down’ |
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© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- JALL@40 Editorial
- Unaltered morphemes as phonological triggers and targets in Rutooro
- Progressive vowel height harmony in Proto-Kikongo and Proto-Bantu
- A microtypological survey of noun classes in Kwa
- Hunting for signs: Exploring unspoken networks within the Kalahari Basin
- Book Review
- Vydrin, Valentin F., Yulia V. Mazurova, Andrej A. Kibrik and Elena B. Markus: Jazyki mira. Jazyki mande [Languages of the World. The Mande Languages]
- Recent publications in African Linguistics
- Errata
- Erratum to: The structure of Argobba nominal phrase
- Erratum to: Applicatives in Ya̧g Dii: Morphological and syntactic implications
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Editorial
- JALL@40 Editorial
- Unaltered morphemes as phonological triggers and targets in Rutooro
- Progressive vowel height harmony in Proto-Kikongo and Proto-Bantu
- A microtypological survey of noun classes in Kwa
- Hunting for signs: Exploring unspoken networks within the Kalahari Basin
- Book Review
- Vydrin, Valentin F., Yulia V. Mazurova, Andrej A. Kibrik and Elena B. Markus: Jazyki mira. Jazyki mande [Languages of the World. The Mande Languages]
- Recent publications in African Linguistics
- Errata
- Erratum to: The structure of Argobba nominal phrase
- Erratum to: Applicatives in Ya̧g Dii: Morphological and syntactic implications
