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Reconstructing the Nile: climate, agriculture, and socio-economic change in Roman Egypt

  • Sabine R. Huebner EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: November 17, 2025
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Journal of Ancient History
From the journal Journal of Ancient History

Abstract

This article revisits and refines the reconstruction of Nile flood levels during the Roman period, using a multidisciplinary approach to integrate textual, numismatic, and epigraphic sources with environmental data and comparative Islamic-era Nilometer records. The Nile flood was a linchpin of agricultural prosperity and socio-economic stability for both Roman Egypt and the wider Mediterranean, yet systematic annual flood data remain absent for the Roman period. By expanding upon Bonneau’s pioneering 1971 study, this research reanalyzes her dataset in light of recent papyrological and epigraphic discoveries and new interpretations and scientific proxies. The study underscores a transition from stable and abundant Nile floods in the early Imperial period to weaker inundations after the mid-second century CE, correlating these changes with broader climatic cooling trends. Comparative analysis with Islamic-period flood data highlights long-term hydrological trends and emphasizes the interplay of climatic variability and annual Nile flood heights.

Keywords: Nile floods; Roman Egypt; Hydrological variability; Agricultural productivity; Papyrological evidence; Climatic adaptation

Acknowledgments

I am deeply grateful for the suggestions and feedback received from audiences at Harvard, ISAW, Kyoto, the Collège de France in Paris, and Cambridge, where earlier versions of this research were presented, as well as to the anonymous reader of the JAH for their invaluable comments on this article.

Appendix: Catalogue of Nile Inundations in Roman Egypt (30 BCE–299 CE)

Year BCE/CE Flood Strength Location Sources
30 BCE 6 Philae Trilingual dedication of Cornelius Gallus from 29 BCE who thanks the Nile as “his helper” (Latin inscription: OGIS 654: Nil[o adiut]ori; Greek inscription Bernand 1969, 128: Ν]είλῳ συνλήπτορι).
29
28
27
26 7 Arsinoites P.Ryl. 4.601 (1 Aug., 26 BCE): land rental contract foreseeing an abundant flood.
25
24 2 Egypt Strabo 17.1.3: “During the government of Petronius (25–21 BCE), however, when the Nile rose twelve cubits only (24 BCE?), there was a most abundant crop; and once when it mounted to eight only (23 BCE?), no famine followed.”
23 1 Oxyrhynchus; Egypt P.Oxy. 7.1061 from 25 June–24 July, 22 BCE: unwatered land needs to be measured;

Strabo 17.1.3: “During the government of Petronius (25–21 BCE), however, when the Nile rose twelve cubits only (24 BCE?), there was a most abundant crop; and once when it mounted to eight only (23 BCE?), no famine followed.”
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9 8 Herakleopolites BGU 4.1193: 6–24 Feb., 8 BCE: fields could not be seeded due to excessive flooding.
8
7
6 8 Kom Trouga SB 5.8267 from 3 May, 5 BCE: inscription from Kom Trouga mentioning a flood that destroyed several buildings.
5 7 Arsinoites; Oxyrhynchus P.Tebt. 2.459 from 5 Nov.–26 Dec., 5 BCE: wheat prices quadrupled (wrongly dated by Bonneau 1971 to 6 BCE and interpreted as additional evidence for excessive flooding in 6 BCE; cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12);

P.Oslo 26 from 29 Aug., 5 BCE-4 Aug., 4 BCE: worms are eating the seeds of the cereals and lentils; the sowing had been completed with great difficulty (because the fields were still soaked?);

Nilometer at Elephantine, SB 8392, 36 (Borchardt 1906: “24 cubits 4 palms 1 finger”).
4
3
2
1
1 CE 2 Herakleopolites BGU 16.2660 from 14 Aug., 1 CE: irrigation of uninundated land.
2
3
4
5
6 2 Rome Wheat shortage at Rome (Euseb. Chron. 2.146–7; cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.10).
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15 2 Thebes; Arsinoites O.Mattha. 94 and 95: lower-than–normal dyke taxes;

PSI 9.1028 from 25 Nov., 15 CE: wheat prices are expected to rise.
16
17 8 Gebel Silsile Preisigke and Spiegelberg (1915), 13, n. 220: the inscription records the water level in the quarries of Gebel Silsile in the years 4–5 of an emperor who is not named. Preisigke and his colleagues consider a dating into the reign of Tiberius as probable and thus a dating into the late summer of the year 17 CE. It must have been a very high and dangerous flood, which probably turned the entire quarry into a lake.
18
19 1 Alexandria; Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 25.2435: Germanicus distributes grain in Alexandria during a food crisis;

P.Oxy. 2.252 from 30 Aug., 19–28 Aug., 20 CE: notification of tax evasion;

Tac. Ann. 2.87 from 20 CE: “The people complained about the high cost of food. Caesar fixed the price the buyer would pay for the wheat, and promised the seller compensation of two sesterces per bushel.”
20
21
22 3 Gizeh SB 5.7738 = SEG 8.527 from 22/3 CE: praise for the nome’s strategos for his dedication to irrigation work (due to a rather low Nile flood), so that all the plains were completely covered with water.
23 8 Elephantine Nilometer at Elephantine, SB 8392, 4 (Borchardt 1906, 16: “25 cubits 1 palm 2 finger”).
24 6 Arsinoites P.Mich. 5.233 from 13 Sept. 24 CE: oath of four priests of Tebtynis submitted to the inspector of sowing of the Arsinoite nome by four priests who have been appointed guards of two sluice gates and promise to guard the water intake to prevent breaches of the dikes: “we will each guard his own sluice in addition to all expenses and attend it every hour so that no loss may ensue; and if any collapse or break should occur, we ourselves will be responsible for all damage that follows.”
25
26 7 Elephantine Nilometer at Elephantine, Borchardt (1906), 20: “24 cubits ? palms ? fingers ?”
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39 3 Arsinoites P.Merton 11 from 30 Aug., 39 CE to 28 Aug., 40 CE: petition to the strategos about a dispute about the irrigation of land and the protection of dams.
40 7 Arsinoites P.Ryl. 2.231 from 40 CE: Ammonius sent a letter to Aphrodisius asking him to move the grain in the granary to a higher, more secure place due to the strong inundation.
41
42
43
44
45 8 Arsinoites Plin. HN 5.10: “The greatest increase known, up to the present time, is that of 18 cubits, which took place in the time of the Emperor Claudius”;

P.Mich. 2.127 from Sept.–Oct., 45 CE: price almost double between Sept. to Dec. 45 CE possibly to a very high and destructive flood (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12);

P.Mich. 2.123 col. 9, l. 30 from 28 Dec., 45 CE: receipt for seeds for the public farmers suggesting a sowing in early January which is unusually late [I owe this reference to Sara Baldin].
46 ? Arsinoites P.Mich. 2.123 verso xi.26–27 from Dec. 46 CE: prices remain at a very high level in Dec. 46 CE, probably due to another unfortunate-either too low or too high-flood, even though SB 20.14576, l. 34 from 46/7 CE indicates that prices started to fall (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
47 6 Arsinoites P.Lond. 3.604: register of flooded land.
48
49
50
51
52
53
54 1 Arsinoites SB 4.7462 from 57 CE; cf., Lewis (1986), 164: high numbers of delinquent tax payers took to flight in years of poor harvests. The number of fugitives in Philadelphia rose from 43 men in summer 55 CE to over a hundred in summer 56 peaking at 152 men soon after. And, declined a partial tax forgiveness to 105 fugitives in autumn 57 CE.
55 1 Arsinoites SB 4.7462 from 57 CE; cf., Lewis (1986), 164.
56 1 Arsinoites SB 4.7462 from 57 CE; cf., Lewis (1986), 164.
57 5 Bousiris, Letopolites OGIS 666 = SB 5.8303 from 55–59 CE: an inscription for the prefect Claudius Tiberius Balbillus mentions the “right” flood level for the current year. Might belong to either 57, 58 or 59 CE.
58
59
60
61 7 Philae; Elephantine Flood inscription on the city gate of Philae (Borchardt 1906, 12–13: 11–13);

Nilometer at Elephantine, SB 8392, 32 (Borchardt 1906, 20: “more than 24 cubits”).
62
63
64 2 Rome Fear of food shortage in Rome, Nero reduces the price of wheat (Tac. Ann. 15.39.2; cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.10).
65
66
67 7 Elephantine Nilometer at Elephantine, SB 5.8392, 37 (Borchardt 1906, 20: “24 cubits 6 palms 1 finger”).
68
69 5 Alexandria Dio Cass. 65.9.2: after his arrival in Egypt, Vespasian collected grain for Rome “in as large quantities as possible”, which implies according to Lichocka (2015), 99 that this flood was very good.
70 6 Alexandria Dio Cass. 66.8: “Following Vespasian’s entry into Alexandria the Nile overflowed, having in one day risen a palm higher than usual.” Cf., Lichocka (2015), 99–100, who argues this sudden rise of the flood refers to July 70 CE when Vespasian sailed away for Rome.
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78 2 Hermopolites SB 8.9699, l. 177–178 for Oct. 78 CE; l. 360–362 for Jan. 79 CE, and l. 454–455 for Feb. 79 CE: unusually high price for wheat (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89 1 Volcanic eruption in the northern hemisphere in 88 CE (Sigl 2015 from the Greenland NEEM-2011–S1 ice core), possible suppression of the following Nile summer floods.
90 2 Volcanic eruption in the northern hemisphere in 88 CE (Sigl 2015 from the Greenland NEEM-2011–S1 ice core), possible suppression of the following Nile summer floods.
91 7 Elephantine Nilometer at Elephantine, SB 5.8392, 35 (Borchardt 1906, 20: “24 cubits 4 palms and ? fingers?”).
92
93
94 2 Arsinoites P.Fayoum 110 from 11 Sept., 94 CE: very careful orders for irrigation of an estate and high price of lotus seed;

SB 5.7599, l. 11–18 from 25 Dec., 94 CE: land remained dry despite its proximity to canals.
95
96 8 Hermopolites P.Flor. 3.368 from Aug.–Sept. 96 CE: lease with provision for heavy flooding this year.
97 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 990 from 97/8 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
98 6 Alexandria; Arsinoites Dattari-Savio 971 from 98/9 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits;

Dattari-Savio 972 from 98/9 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits;

P.Mich.Tebt. 464, 19/20 from 16 Mar., 99 CE: a very productive olive grove.
99 2 Oxyrhynchus Plin. Pan. 30.2: weak Nile inundation of 99 CE, the Nile flood rose only slowly and hardly left the riverbed, the surrounding fields were barely flooded. Trajan ordered to import grain to Egypt to mitigate crop failures;

P.Oxy. 41.2958 from 2 Dec., 99 CE: wheat is at the remarkably high price of 16 drachmas.
100 6 Alexandria; Arsinoites Dattari-Savio 975 from 100/1 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits;

P.Iand. 3.27 from 100/1 CE: riverian land under cultivation.
101
102
103 8 Arsinoites P.Fay. 119 from ca. 103 CE: “Aunes the donkey-driver has bought a rotten bundle of hay at 12 drachmae, a little bundle and rotten hay, the whole of it decayed – no better than dung (...) Pasis is crying out that we must not allow it to be dissolved by the water, and let them fetch his hay.”
104
105 8 Arsinoites SB 6.8976 from after 28 Nov., 105 CE: rental of land for one year, in anticipation of the land remaining under water.
106 7 Elephantine Nilometer at Elephantine, Borchardt (1906), 16: more than 25 cubits (reconstructed).
107 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 978: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
108 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 982 and 983 from 108/9 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits;

Dattari-Savio 1002 from 108/9 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile with hippotamus biga and 16 cubits;

Dattari-Savio 7134 from 108/9 CE: Nil with hippotamus biga and 16 cubits.
109 6 Alexandria; Arsinoites Dattari-Savio 998 from 109/10 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits;

P.Mil.Vogl. 3.167 from 17 March, 110 CE: a dike broke due to negligence; water stagnates on the fields.
110
111 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 7111 from 111/2 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
112
113 5 Arsinoites P.Ryl. 2.82 from 26 Oct. 113 CE: only 50 aroures in the village of Ibion are unflooded.
114
115
116 2 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 12.1454: declaration of municipal bakers in Oxyrhynchus points to shortages.
117 1 Apollonopolites Heptakomias; Arsinoites; Hermopolites P.Lips. 2.136 from 9 Jan., 118 CE: offer of lease of uninundated land;

P.Giss. 1.6 Kol. III from 15 Jan., 118 CE: offer of lease of uninundated land;

P.Giss. 1.6 Kol. II from 1 Dec., 117 CE: offer of lease of uninundated land;

P.Giss. 1.5 from 29 Dec., 117 CE: offer of lease of uninundated land;

P.Giss. 1.4 from 10 Jan., 118 CE: offer of lease of uninundated land;

P.Giss. 1.7 from late 117 CE: offer of a lease of uninundated land;

P.Brem. 36 from 28 Dec., 117 CE: offer of lease of uninundated land.
118
119
120
121
123 2 Hermopolites P.Sarap. 60.10: unusually high price for wheat in spring 124 CE (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
124
125 8 Arsinoites; Hermopolites P.Mil.Vogl. 3.170, l. 9–10 from Mar. 27–Aug. 26, 126 CE: land exchange request, for land still under water (Mar. 126);

PSI 7.788, 19–22 from 27 Nov.–26 Dec., 125 CE: lease of land with clause providing for reduction of sown land.
126 8 Arsinoites SB 6.9480, 2, 8–9 from 27 Mar.–26 Aug., 126 CE: request to exchange land under water due to marsh overflow (Mar. 127).
127 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 1805: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
128 6 Alexandria Poole 13.785; P.Col. 5, p. 314: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
129 2 Alexandria See P.Col. 5, p. 313.
130 2 Alexandria See P.Col. 5, p. 313.
131 8 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 3.486, l. 32: “Since therefore news has reached me while staying here that all my property has been lost through the excessive rise of the most sacred Nile, both buildings, lands, and dykes ...”;

P.Oslo 3.78 from after 31 May, 136 CE: “Since I [i.e. the Emperor Hadrian] now learn that the Nile flood is somewhat below normal, as it was last year, although in former years it was not only perfect, but was higher than even before and, covering the whole land, was the cause of most excellent and abundant harvests.”
132 6 Alexandria; Arsinoites P.Oslo 3.78.
133 6 Alexandria; Arsinoites P.Oslo 3.78.
134 2 Alexandria; Arsinoites P.Oslo 3.78.
135 2 Alexandria; Arsinoites P.Oslo 3.78.
136
137
138 5 Oxyrhynchus PSI 4.281, l. 7–9 from 138/9 CE: comparatively low grain price which points to a good or even abundant harvest (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
139
140
141
142 5 Elephantine Nilometer at Elephantine, SB 5.8392, 45 (Borchard 1906, 21–22 “more than 23 cubits”). Cf., Heilporn (1989), 284.
143 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 2747 from 143/4 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
144 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 2749 from 144/5 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
145 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 2750, Dattari-Savio 8631 from 145/6 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
146 8 Elephantine P.Mil.Vogt. 3.180, l. 11–12: accidentally flooded land.

Nilometer at Elephantine (Borchard 1906, 18 “about 26 cubits”).
147 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 2730 from 147/8 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits;

P.Mil.Vogt. 3.180, l. 16–17 et 20: accidentally flooded land the previous year remains under water.
148 8 Alexandria; Elephantine Dattari-Savio 2294 from 148/9 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits;

SB 1.1112: the quarries of El Hosh are under water (cf. Borchardt 1906, 23–24);

Nilometer at Elephantine (Borchardt 1906, 17: “about 26 cubits”).
149 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 2760: from 149/50 CE Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
150 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 2283 from 150/1 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
151 2 Arsinoites BGU 2.571: declaration of uninundated land.
152
153 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 2763 from 153/4 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile and genius inscribing 16 cubits on Nilometer;

Dattari-Savio 8646 from 153/4 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile and genius inscribing 16 cubits on Nilometer.
154
155 7 Arsinoites BGU 7.1636 from 155/6 CE: only 5/6 aroura were unflooded; much flooded land has not been cultivated.
156 1 Arsinoites SB 1. 4416 referring to the twentieth year of Antoninus Pius (29 Aug., 156–29 Aug., 157 CE): “olive harvest for the most part withered and untaxable on account of the lack of water prevailing.”
157 2 Arsinoites P.Phil. 9 from 20 Feb., 158 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Mich. 21.842 from 257/8 or 258/9 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
158 7 Arsinoites; Hermopolites P.Tebt. 2.610 from 29 Aug., 158–29 Aug., 159 (twenty-second year of an emperor which would make 137 or 181 CE possible as well): land washed away by the flood;

P.Würzb. 8 from 30 Dec., 158 CE: farmer wanted to sow his land on Dec. 29 which is unusually late and speaks for the fact that water was stagnating longer than usual on the fields [I owe this reference to Sara Baldin].
159
160 5 Arsinoites P.Berl. Leihg 2.29 recto, l. 64 from Oct. 160 CE: comparatively low grain price which points to a good or even abundant harvest (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
161
162 2 Arsinoites; Pathyrites P.Aberd. 153 from 29 Aug., 162–29 Aug., 163 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Grenf. 2.33 from Feb.–Apr., 163 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Grenf. 2.56 from Feb.–Apr., 163 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Berl.Leihg. 1.2 from 6. Feb., 168 CE: third year of M. Aurelius and L. Verus with weak flood (29 artabae);

SB 26.16738 from Jan.–June, 163 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

SB 14.11912 from 29 Aug., 162–29 Aug., 163 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
163 2 Arsinoites P.Berl.Leihg. 1.2 from 6 Feb., 168 CE: fourth year of M. Aurelius and L. Verus with normal flood (160 artabae);

P.Berl.Leihg. 2.29 from 1 Feb., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oslo 3.100 from 30 Aug., 163–28 Aug., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oslo 3.101 from 30 Aug., 163–28 Aug., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oslo 3.102 from 30 Aug., 163–28 Aug., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oslo 3.103 from 30 Aug., 163–28 Aug., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oslo 3.104 from 30 Aug., 163–28 Aug., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oslo 2.26a col. 1 from 29 Aug., 163–29 Aug., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oslo 2.26a col. 2 from 29 Aug., 163–29 Aug., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

SB 16.12561 from 30 Aug., 163–28 Aug., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

SB 26.16738 from Jan.–Jun., 164 CE: uninundated land;

BGU 15.2488 from 30 Aug., 163–28 Aug., 164 CE or from 29 Aug., 164–28 Aug., 165 CE (unlikely, cf., proxies for Nile flood from 164 CE below): declaration of uninundated land;

SB 12.11109 from 15 Feb., 164 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
164 6 Arsinoites; Alexandria P.Berl.Leihg. 1.2 from 6 Feb., 168 CE: fifth year of M. Aurelius and L. Verus with ideal flood (198 artabae);

Dattari-Savio 9491 from 164/5 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits;

Dattari-Savio 3492 from 164/5 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits and Crocodile;

PSI 1.104 from 170 CE: land declared as chersos (dry) in the eleventh year of M. Aurelius (170 CE) that was already unflooded from the fifth (164 CE) to tenth year (169 CE).
165 2 Arsinoites P.Berl.Leihg. 1.2 from 6. Feb., 168 CE: sixth year of M. Aurelius and L. Verus with weak flood;

PSI 1.104 from 170 CE: land declared as chersos (dry) in the eleventh year of M. Aurelius (170 CE) that was already unflooded from the fifth (164 CE) to tenth year (169 CE).
166 1 Arsinoites P.Bour. 42 from 29 Aug., 166–29 Aug., 167 CE: 50 % of land is uninundated;

PSI 1.104 from 170 CE: land declared as chersos (dry) in the eleventh year of M. Aurelius (170 CE) that was already unflooded from the fifth (164 CE) to tenth year (169 CE).
167 2 Arsinoites P.Fay. 33 from 10 Jul., 168: declaration of uninundated land; P. Mich. 6.366 from 11 Mar.–28 Aug., 168 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Mich. 6.367 from Feb.–Apr., 168 CE (alternatively suggested Feb.–Apr., 169 CE): declaration of uninundated land;

SB 16.12562 from Feb.–Apr., 168 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Cair.Mich. 3.18 from 167–169 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

PSI 1.104 from 170 CE: land declared as chersos (dry) in the eleventh year of M. Aurelius (170 CE) that was already unflooded from the fifth (164 CE) to tenth year (169 CE).
168 2 Arsinoites PSI 3.161 from 27 Mar.–25 Apr., 169 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

PSI 1.104 from 170 CE: land declared as chersos (dry) in the eleventh year of M. Aurelius (170 CE) that was already unflooded from the fifth (164 CE) to tenth year (169 CE);

BGU 13.2232 from Feb.–Apr., 169 CE (could also be Feb.–Apr., 168 CE): declaration of uninundated land.
169 1 Arsinoites P.Mich. 6.368 from 25 Feb., 170 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

PSI 1.104 from 170 CE: land declared as chersos (dry) in the eleventh year of M. Aurelius (170 CE) that was already unflooded from the fifth (164 CE) to tenth year (169 CE);

SB 5.7528 from 24 Feb., 170 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

Volcanic eruption in the southern hemisphere in 168 CE (Sigl 2015 from the Greenland NEEM-2011–S1 ice core), possible suppression of the following Nile summer floods.
170 2 Arsinoites P.Mich. 6.369 from the first half of 171 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

PSI 1.104 from 170 CE: land declared as chersos (dry) that was already unflooded from the fifth (164 CE) to tenth year (169 CE);

Volcanic eruption in the southern hemisphere in 168 CE (Sigl 2015 from the Greenland NEEM-2011–S1 ice core), possible suppression of the following Nile summer floods.
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180 7 Arsinoites SB 22.15242 from 28 Feb., 181 CE: land under water.
181 6 Arsinoites BGU 1.12 from after 14 Oct., 181 CE: report about inspection of fields and dykes.
182
183
184 2 Oxyrhynchites P.Oxy. 66.4527: tax account dated to after 28 Aug., 185 CE. Cf., van Minnen (2001); Bagnall (2000).
185
186 5 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 3.501 from 11 Oct., 186 CE: land lease with exclusion of drought.
187 5 Arsinoites P.Lond. 3.924 from 30 Aug., 187–28 Aug., 188 CE: the Nile flood happened; the riparian land could be sown.
188
189 2 Arsinoites P.Bad. 2.23 from Feb.–Apr., 190 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

BGU 13.2233 from about 190 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Strasb. 9.834 from 25 June–24 July, 190: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Prag. 1.22 from 12 July, 190 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
190 4 Oxyrhynchites P.Fouad 1.43 from Aug. 29, 190–28 Aug., 191 CE: lease with clause providing for non-flooded land for the following year only.
191 1 Arsinoites P.Goodspeed 30 from after 25 May, 192 CE: very high price of wheat (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
192
193 2 unknown P.Hamb. 1.12 from 209/10 CE concerning 193 CE: report of inspectors who state that land that used to be under water but is no longer.
194 1 Arsinoites; Thebes; Oxyrhynchus P.Hamb. 1.12 from 209/10 CE concerning 194 CE: report of inspectors who state that land that used to be under water but is no longer;

P.Prag. 1.23 from 11 Apr., 195 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

BGU 3.973 from 29 Aug., 194–29 Aug., 195 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Brook. 71 from 29 Aug., 194–29 Aug., 195 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

PSI Congr. 17.25 from 29 Aug., 194–29 Aug., 195 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
195 7 Elephantine Nilometer at Elephantine (Borchardt 1906, 21: 24 cubits 4 palms 1 finger). Cf., Sijpesteijn (1986).
196 2 Thebes O.Ashm. 62 from 22 June, 197 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
197 4 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 6.910, l. 27 from 4 Nov., 197 CE: “If after the coming year (which heaven forbid!) any part be unirrigated”, i.e., the present year was a normal/good flood.
198
199
200 1 Oxyrhynchus; Arsinoites P.Oxy. 4.740 from 29 Aug., 200–28 Aug., 201 CE: mentioning of uninundated land;

BGU 11.2023 from 29 Aug., 200–28 Aug., 201 CE?: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Hamb. 1.12 from 209/10 CE concerning 200 CE: land that was uninundated is again under water (?);

SB 16.12563 from before 21 Mar., 201 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
201 1 Oxyrhynchus; Arsinoites BGU 1.139 from 25 Feb., 202 CE: “two arouras of private land belonging to me near the village of Karanis (...), which have remained uninundated for the present tenth year”;

BGU 11.2022 from Feb.–Apr., 202 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Hamb. 1.11 from 25 Mar., 202 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Aberd. 50 from 202 to 204 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Ryl. 4.682 from Feb.–Apr., 202 CE (203 CE possible): declaration of uninundated land;

P.Harris 2.198 from 202–204 CE?: declaration of uninundated land that could refer to the flood of 201, 202 or 203 CE.
202 2 Oxyrhynchus; Arsinoites; Alexandria P.Oxy. 8.1113 from 26 Jan.–24 Feb., 203 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Alex.Giss. 1 from 202–203 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

Euseb. Chron. 6.2: persecutions of Christians in Alexandria (201/2 CE).
203 2 Arsinoites; Oxyrhynchus P.Ryl. 4.596 from 23 March, 204 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

BGU 1.108r from 203/4 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Col. 10.272 from 204 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
204
205 7 Arsinoites P.Fam.Tebt. 51 from 24 Mar., 206: declaration of land still under water;

P.Hamb. 1.12 from 209/10 CE concerning 205 CE: land that was uninundated is again under water.
206 5 unknown P.Hamb. 1.12 from 209/10 CE concerning 206 CE: land that was uninundated is again under water.
207 2 Arsinoites P.Fam.Tebt. 52 before 26 Mar., 208 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Tebt. 2.324 from 21 Mar., 208 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
208 7 Arsinoites; Elephantine BGU 11.2101 from 26 Jan.–24 Feb., 209 CE: two declarations of land still under water;

Nilometer at Elephantine (Borchardt 1906, 19: “more than 24 cubits” during the reign of Septimius Severus with Caracalla and Geta 198–211 CE which might refer to the year 208 CE.
209 5 unknown P.Hamb. 1.12 from 209/10 CE concerning 209 CE: land that was uninundated is again under water.
210 6 Arsinoites SB 14.11478 from 29 Aug., 210–29 Aug., 211 CE “at a time when the most sacred Nile has shown himself most favorable to us for a good issue.”
211 2 Arsinoites P.Mich. 6.372 from 30 Aug., 211–28 Aug., 212: declaration of uninundated land;

CPR 8.11 from 1 Mar., 212: declaration of uninundated land.
212 6 Alexandria Dattari-Savio 4068 from 212/3 CE: Alexandrinian coin with Nile at 16 cubits.
213
214 7 Arsinoites SB 6.9432 b from 26 Dec., 214 CE: receipt for seeds several weeks later than the ordinary range [I owe this reference to Sara Baldin].
215 6 Arsinoites BGU 3.835 from 7 Jan., 217 CE: report of the sitologoi about a good harvest.
216
217
218 2 Oxyrhynchus BGU 13.2234 col. I from 29 Aug., 218–29 Aug., 219 CE: two declarations of uninundated land.
219 3 Oxyrhynchus; Arsinoites P.Oxy. 18.2189 from 11 Oct., 219 CE: land lease with excludes a drought for this third year (of Elagabal).

SB 26.16414 from 30 Aug., 219–28 Aug., 220 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
220 1 Arsinoites SB 4.7468 from 24 Feb., 221 CE: “this year’s crop remained dry due to lack of water”;

SB 12.11033 from 29 Aug., 220–29 Aug., 221 CE or 29 Aug., 224–28 Aug., 225 CE?: declaration of uninundated land.
221 4 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 14.1743 from 29 Aug., 221–28 Aug., 222 CE: young shoots that do not reveal any lack (of water).
222 2 Arsinoites P.Giss.Bibl. 6.52 from 29 Aug., 222–29 Aug., 223: declaration of uninundated land.
223 2 Oxyrhynchus SB 20.14385 from 26 Feb.–26 Mar., 224 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
224
225 2 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 12.1459 from 6 Mar., 226 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239 3 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 12.1549 from 26 Feb., 239–26 Mar., 240 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
240
241
242 2 Arsinoites BGU 1.84 from 29 Aug., 242–29 Aug., 243 CE: part of an estate uninundated.
243 5 Hermopolites P.Oslo 2.27 from 1 Jan., 244–31 Dec., 244 CE: flooding reached its good niveau (Bonneau assigned this papyrus to the flood of 244 CE, but it is more likely that the document dates to the beginning of 244 after Philip Arabs’ accession in Feb. 244 and refers back to the summer flood of 243).
244 2 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 65.4488 from 29 Aug., 244–28 Aug., 245 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oxy. 42.3046 from 29 Aug., 24–28 Aug., 245 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oxy. 42.3047 from 25 Feb.–26 Mar., 245 CE: declaration of uninundated land;

P.Oxy. 6.970 from about 245 CE: declaration of uninundated land.
245 1 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 42.3048 from 18 Mar., 246 CE: all citizens are ordered to come forward with their grain stores and to sell them at the maximum price of 6 denarii per artaba so that the city of Oxyrhynchus could be nourished.
246 2 Oxyrhynchus P.Gen. 2.116 from 4 June, 247 CE: uninundated land mentioned in a deal of sale and transfer.
247 2 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 12.1418 from 30 Aug.–28 Sep., 247 CE;

P.Erl. 18 from 248 CE from 27 Oct., 248.
248 2 Arsinoites P.Flor. 1.9 from June 249 CE: very high wheat price mentioned in the Heroninos archive (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12)
249 2 Alexandria Bishop Dionysius reports famines leading to uprisings and spontaneous persecutions of Christians as scapegoats by the Alexandrian mob (Euseb. Hist. eccl. 7.21).
250 2 Alexandria, Arsinoite Early 250 CE: issuance of the Edict of Sacrifice by Decius, which called on everyone to sacrifice to the gods;

Official persecutions of Christians who refused to sacrifice;

P.Prag. Varcl. 2.2 and P.Prag. 3.240, from Sept.–Dec., 250: price is high (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
251 3 Alexandria, Arsinoites Official persecutions of Christians who refused to sacrifice (Euseb. Hist. eccl. 7.11.20);

SB 20.14645, l. 20 from Nov., 251 CE: price is high, but lower than in the heat of the crisis (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12);

P.Prag. Varcl. 2.4 from Apr., 252 CE: price rises again to former heights (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
252
253
254 2 Arsinoites SB 6.9053 from 2 Oct., 254 CE: a water wheel had to be brought from 70 km away from the village of Moithymis in the Memphite nome to help water the fields in Theadelphia.
255
256
257
258
259 7 Arsinoites P.Lond. 3.1170v from 259 CE: men sowing from 30 Dec. to Jan. 11 which is very late and could speak for water stagnating longer than usual on the fields.
260
261
262 2 Alexandria Euseb. Hist. Eccl. 7.21 from spring 264 CE: the Alexandrian bishop Dionysius refers to a below-average flood the year before last year (summer 262).
263 7 Alexandria Euseb. Hist. Eccl. 7.21: the Alexandrian bishop Dionysius refers to a destructive summer flood in the preceding year.
264 1 Volcanic eruption in the southern hemisphere in 263 CE (Sigl 2015 from the Greenland NEEM-2011–S1 ice core), possible suppression of the following Nile summer floods.
265 2 Oxyrhynchus P.Oxy. 31.2569 from 24 Sept., 265 CE: a liturgist in charge of supplying water for the baths, says the flood is very slow. Volcanic eruption in the southern hemisphere in 263 CE (Sigl 2015 from the Greenland NEEM-2011–S1 ice core), possible suppression of the following Nile summer floods.
266 3 Oxyrhynchus; Hermopolis P.Oxy. 14.1689 from 24 Sept., 266 CE: land lease anticipating drought;

P.Herm.Boul. 29 from 29 Nov., 266 CE: land lease with exclusion of drought for the fourteenth year-which in combination with P.Oxy. 14.1689 speaks for a delayed flood, which announced itself weakly, but then rose higher afterwards.
267
268
269 2 Oxyrhynchus P.Erlangen 101, l. 30–31 from 29 Aug., 269 to 28 Aug., 270 CE: very high grain price again in the following year (cf., Rathbone and von Reden 2015, Table A8.12).
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284 5 Akhoris, Cynopolites SB 3.6597 from 283/4 CE (probably Aug., 283, against Bonneau 1971, 36, n. 134): height of the Nile reaches good level in the second year of the emperors Carinus and Numerianus (I. Akhoris 29).
285
286 5 Akhoris, Cynopolites SB 3.6598 from 9 Aug., 286 CE: “The Nile flood rises up to the sanctuary of Souchos and other gods in Akoris-Teneh.

(I.Akhoris 30).
287
288 5 Akhoris, Cynopolites SB 660 (I.Akhoris 32) probably from Aug., 288 CE.
289 3 Akhoris, Cynopolites SB 6601 (I.Akhoris 33): inscription mentions a mediocre flood.
290 4 Akhoris, Cynopolites SB 6602 (I.Akhoris 34).
291
292 3 Arsinoites; Akhoris, Cynopolites P.Aberd. 18 from 15 Sept., 292 CE: 13 cubits 4 finger;

SB 6603 (I.Akhoris 35).
294
295
296
297
298
299 2 Arsinoites P.Cair.Isid. 3 from 11 Sept., 299 CE: Aurelia Herois declares her uninundated land along a canal (beyond that ‘waste land’) and productive olive groves.

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Published Online: 2025-11-17

© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

https://doi.org/10.1515/jah-2025-0013
Keywords for this article
Nile floods; Roman Egypt; Hydrological variability; Agricultural productivity; Papyrological evidence; Climatic adaptation
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