Home Cerebral cavernous malformations in the pediatric age group
Article Publicly Available

Cerebral cavernous malformations in the pediatric age group

  • Jonathan Roth

    Jonathan Roth is a senior pediatric neurosurgeon, and works at the Dana Children’s Hospital (Tel-Aviv Medical Center). His main clinical and academic interests are in pediatric brain tumors (especially ventricular and periventricular tumors), pediatric epilepsy surgery, and endoscopic approaches for treatment of hydrocephalus and brain tumors. Following a clinical fellowship at NYULMC in NY, Jonathan has specialized in tuberous sclerosis related surgery, for the treatment of refractory epilepsy and TSC related brain tumors, and is part of the TSA consensus group regarding treatment of patients with TSC.

     EMAIL logo     , Suhas Udayakumaran and Shlomi Constantini

    Professor Shlomi Constantini has been the director of the department of Pediatric Neurosurgery at Dana Children’s Hospital since 1996. After completing medical degree and neurosurgical residency, Shlomi received his training from Fred Epstein at NYU, specializing in complex brain and spinal cord surgical challenges in children, focusing on those that are most difficult to operate. His department is the largest tertiary facility in Israel and includes three senior neurosurgeons, a nurse practitioner and several international trainees at any time. Shlomi is intensely performing research and has published over 150 papers in peer-reviewed journals and over 40 book chapters. Professor Constantini is a member of the editorial board of five journals. He has many international assignments, among them: vice president of the EANS (European association of Neurosurgical Societies), president of the IFNE (International Federation for Neuroendoscopy), and secretary of ISPN (International Society Pediatric Neurosurgery).
Published/Copyright: December 5, 2013
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Author Information Explore this Subject
Innovative Neurosurgery
From the journal Innovative Neurosurgery Volume 1 Issue 3-4

Abstract

Cerebral cavernous malformations (CMs) are benign intraparenchymal vascular malformations. CM represent 10%–20% of cerebral vascular lesions and their prevalence in children is around 0.5%. CMs may present at any age, however, only about 25% present during childhood. CMs are rare during the first year of life and even rarer in the neonatal and prenatal period. CMs in the pediatric age group in general, and amongst infants and neonates specifically, may have a higher bleeding tendency, distinct radiological features, and unclear natural history. In this review paper, we focus on specific features of CMs in the pediatric and infant age groups.

Keywords: Cavernous malformation; children; intracranial bleed

Introduction

Cerebral cavernous angiomas, or cavernous malformations (CMs), are benign intraparenchymal vascular malformations. CMs represent 10%–20% of cerebral vascular lesions and their prevalence in children is around 0.5% [3, 4]. CMs contain sinusoidal spaces lined by a single-layer endothelium, separated by collagenous stroma, with no intervening brain parenchyma [85].

CM may present at any age, however, only about 25% present during childhood [1]and they are rare during the first year of life [86]. In a previous report [98], we summarized 21 published cases of CM diagnosed during the neonatal and prenatal period (Table 1). CM in the pediatric age group is a distinct subgroup when compared to adults [67]; CM features in neonates may reflect the features of the pathology in children in general, including greater bleeding tendency, distinct radiological features, and unclear natural history. In this article, we focus on specific CM features in the pediatric and infant age groups.

Table 1

Review of literature of fetal and neonatal cavernous malformations and their locations.

AuthorAgeLocationPresentationImagingOutcome
Arnstein et al. [6]3 daysLateral ventricleIVH–Death
Azam and O′Donovan [7]3 daysRight frontal lobe plus germinal matrix adjacent to right lateral ventricleSeizure, ICHCT, MRI, MRVConservative, seizure free
Bergeson et al. [10]2 daysRight frontalSeizure, ICHCTFrontal craniotomy, removal
Good outcome
Canevini et al. [19]2 daysPosterior fossaMacrocephaly, hydrocephalus–Death
Hashimoto et al. [31]1 dayBasal gangliaIVHMRITotal removal, good
Hayashi et al. [33]32 weeksCenter of cerebrumHydrocephalusUS, MRI, CTOmmaya, VP-shunt, total removal, improved neurology, stabilized head circumference
Henrich et al. [34]37 weeksThalamusHydrocephalusUS, MRITotal removal, flaccid hemiparesis at 2 years
Holden and Alexander [35]1 dayPosterior fossaICH–Death
Holden and Alexander [35]14 daysDiffuseParalysis, hydrocephalus–VP-shunt, death
Honda et al. [36]32 weeksRight temporal calvarial lesionHard mass right temporal (Osseous)US, CT, MRI, dynamic MRITotal removal, normal development
Iwasa et al. [39]1 dayLateral ventricleHydrocephalusCTTotal removal, good outcome
Jooma et al. [40]4 daysCerebral hemisphereMacrocephaly, mass effectCTTotal removal
Kan et al. [41]1 dayBifronto-temporo-parietalMacrocephaly, tense fontanelle, apneaMRINo treatment, support withdrawn, death
Karmazyn et al. [44]2 daysLeft parietalMacrocephaly, bulging fontanels, separation of cranial suturesUS, CT, MRITotal removal, normal neurology
Kon et al. [48]39 weeksBasal gangliaPrenatal US, postnatally right hemiparesis at 6 monthsUS, CT, MRI, MRACraniotomy and biopsy, irradiation, improved hemiparesis
Leung et al. [54]20 weeksPosterior fossa, tentorialHemorrhage within falx cerebri and tentorium cerebri, EDHUS, MRIAbortion
Moritake et al. [65]33 weeksPosterior fossaHydrocephalus, ICHCT, angiographyTotal removal, good
Prensky and Gado [76]10 daysOrbit and middle cranial fossaProptosis, left non reactive pupilAngiographySpontaneous regression
Saldaña et al. [87]PrenatallyDuralPrenatal diagnosis, mass effectUS, CTSurgical treatment
Udayakumaran et al. [98]27 daysSuprasellarIVH, SAH, ICH, seizure, hemiparesisCT, MRI, MRASurgery, hemiparesis
Vanlieferinghen et al. [100]30 weeksBrainstemHydrocephalusUSAbortion

IVH=intraventricular hemorrhage, US=ultrasound, EDH=epidural hematoma, ICH=intracerebral hemorrhage, SAH=subarachnoid hemorrhage, CT=computer tomography, MRI=magnetic resonance imaging, MRA=magnetic resonance angiography.

Embryology and development

The pathogenesis of cerebral CMs are not well understood. CMs are thought to result from a vascular malformative process that occurs in the early stages of embryogenesis, and grows according to distinct mechanisms and blood flow changes [71, 80, 93]. There is an association between CMs and developmental venous anomalies (DVA) in 13%–40% of CMs, and to some degree, DVA may contribute to the pathogenesis of CMs through microhemorrhages. This is possibly due to leakage from the DVA or secondary to venous hypertension, activating vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and other angiogenic factors [72, 88]. It is important to state that not all CMs are congenital, and the prevalence of CMs increases with age [4]. Additionally, de-novo lesions are well documented, especially following radiation, and more so in the pediatric age group [18, 59, 70]. Radiationinduced CMs are radiologically and pathologically similar to spontaneous CMs [9], and may appear months to years following radiation therapy [18, 90]. It is unclear from the literature whether the occurrence rate of neonatal or fetal CMs is higher in families with cavernomatosis. Diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis has been associated with CMs in infants [5]. We found one case report describing both diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis and CM in the neonatal age [35].

Familial CMs

It has been reported that about 10%–20% of Caucasian patients with CMs, and about 50% of Hispanic patients, are believed to be familialbased [22, 50, 61]. Familial CMs are autosomal dominant, and the genetic mutations are KRIT1/CCM1 (on chromosome 7q), CCM2 (on chromosome 7p), and PDCD10/CCM3 (on chromosome 3q) [22, 61]. Familial CMs tend to form de-novo, are present at an earlier age, are often multiple, are more often found in infratentorial locations, and tend to be more active compared to spontaneous CM [1, 21, 25]. In a recent survey of a large pediatric group, 30% had multiple CM, of which about a quarter had familial CM [4].

Locations of CMs in childhood

The supratentorial compartment is the most common location of CMs (70%–80%); 10%–20% are located in the posterior fossa (mostly brainstem), and 5%–10% in the spine [1, 4, 20, 52, 53, 103]. The CM location may be intra-axial or extra-axial. Extra-axial CMs have been reported in the dura [19, 87], ventricles [6, 39], and tentorium [54, 65]. Honda et al. reported a neonate who presented with an osseous CM (temporal) mass with intracerebral extension that was successfully excised [36]. Intra-axial CM in neonates are extremely rare [40].

Brainstem CMs (BSCMs) have been reported in adults as well as the pediatric age group [11, 12, 53, 55, 103]. Similar to adults, pediatric BSCMs are more often located in the pons. They may follow radiation therapy (which is often used to treat pediatric posterior fossa tumors such as medulloblastoma), with a time latency of 1–15 years.

Dura mater of the cavernous sinus, optic apparatus, third nerve, sella, third ventricle, or adjacent parenchyma are possible epicenters of suprasellar CMs [14, 17, 27, 38, 57, 62, 68, 81, 85, 92, 94, 105], which may appear in neonates as well [98].

Presentation of pediatric CMs

The age of onset of CMs may be from birth to late adulthood. In the pediatric series, the average age of onset is about 10 years old [53, 103]. Similar to adult patients, there is no clear sex predominance [4, 53, 103].

The clinical course of CMs is highly variable with common presenting symptoms including intracerebral hemorrhage, headaches, seizures, and focal neurological deficits [3, 20, 52], with about 14%–46% of CMs found incidentally [4, 53].

Around 50% of patients present with seizures [103]. Seizures may include general seizures (40%–70%), complex partial (15%–40%), and simple partial (15%–20%) [1, 3, 64]. Seizures may arise from local cortical irritation caused by blood product; however, over time, seizures may become refractory, with the seizure onset zone being larger than the lesion itself, most probably related to secondary gliosis caused by recurrent hemorrhages. Although seizures are a common presentation of CMs in adults and older children, seizures as a presenting symptom are rare in infants [7, 10]. When present in neonates and young infants, seizures usually indicate acute significant hemorrhage, accompanied by additional symptoms, unlike the microhemorrhages and true isolated seizures seen in other age groups.

The clinical manifestations noted in neonates include hemorrhagic syndromes, macrocephaly, hydrocephalus, seizures, and focal neurological deficits (Table 1). Many cases may be occult and may only be found on autopsy [54, 100].

Hemorrhage is a characteristic feature of CMs at any age and children are no exception [17, 57, 58, 103]. They may range from microscopic hemorrhages to severe life-threatening hemorrhages, the latter being more common in children and neonates than in adults [26, 34, 54, 67]. The annual bleeding rate of CMs in the adult literature is 0.7%–6% per patient-year [102]; currently, there are no documented percentages specific to the infant and pediatric age group. Nevertheless, age does not seem to be a risk factor for hemorrhage [4]. Symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage in a full-term newborn is rare (incidence 5.2 in 10,000 live births in a recent study [86]), although in many of the intracranial hemorrhages in a neonate, the true cause may never be known [32, 77, 95]. CMs presenting as an extra-axial bleed with extensive subarachnoid hemorrhage is a rare occurrence in any age group [16, 27, 98, 99, 104].

Enlarging head circumference, with or without hydrocephalus, is a unique presentation among neonates [9/21 patients in the literature review (Table 1)] [6, 19, 39–41, 65, 87], as well as in younger children. In neonates, the diagnosis may be prenatal (8/21 of the patients). Note that CMs presentation in infants can be non-specific [10]. A positive family history may be an indicator towards the diagnosis [10].

Infratentorial CMs, usually located in the brainstem, may cause cranial neuropathy as well as long-tract or cerebellar signs and symptoms [11]. Often, the natural history of BSCMs is of a primary improvement in the neurological condition, followed by acute events of deterioration corresponding to a primary bleed with absorption, followed by additional bleeds [39]. Due to their rarity, much of the understanding of pediatric BSCMs is derived from the adult literature. The annual bleeding rate of a BSCM is considered higher relative to supratentorial CMs, at about 2.5%; however, the rebleed rate is about 20%–60% per lesion per year [29, 49, 73, 101].

Hemorrhagic risk of pediatric CMs

The hemorrhagic rate of CMs in the adult population is between 0.7% and 16.5% per lesion year [102]. Obviously, many CMs go undiagnosed, as the general incidence of CMs in the general population is about 0.4%–0.8% [102]. The natural history of pediatric CMs is not well-documented [4]; however, pediatric CMs in general are considered by some to be biologically more dynamic compared to adult CMs [67]. Others state that there are no major differences in hemorrhagic rates between adults and children [4].

Factors that may correlate with an increased hemorrhagic tendency in neonatal/fetal and infant patients

We have tried to define a set of factors that seem to correlate with the specific behavior and presentation of CMs in neonates. Some of these factors are applicable to the pediatric age group in general.

Susceptibility to increased arterial and venous pressure

Although the vascular anatomy in the neonatal period and earlier is normal, the vasculature is immature, poorly supported, and lacks the protection of the bloodbrain barrier and autoregulation, making it susceptible to the effects of raised venous and arterial pressure [96].

Weak perilesional gliotic tissue

Hashimoto et al. postulated that the weak perilesional gliotic tissue is responsible for the acute hemorrhagic tendency in neonatal CMs [31], although this would not explain extraxial lesions that may have bled.

Hybrid lesions

Hybrid lesions are more common in pediatric CMs [67]. We hypothesize that neonatal CMs have a higher frequency of mixed lesion, meaning association of other lesions like capillary telangiectasia, making them behave in a relatively “aggressive” manner [67, 80].

Angiogenic growth factors

Angiogenic growth factors, such as VEGF/Flk1, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and transforming growth factor are expressed in CMs [45, 84]. VEGF and bFGF are abundantly expressed during embryonic development, but are absent in normal adult vascular beds, including the cerebral vasculature. Therefore, the expression of these growth factors may promote angiogenic processes and proliferation of new vessels in pediatric CMs, which are normally dormant in adult brain tissue [45, 84]. For example, a recent report indicates that endoglin might play a role of higher risk of pediatric CMs for hemorrhages [97]. Another recent paper by Zhu et al. showed that in vitro, the activated VEGF system was unrelated to CCM1-3 gene expression [107], however, CCM3 and CCM2 had different vascular proliferation effects [108].

Maternal hormonal influence

It is well known that there is a propensity to hemorrhage in maternal vascular lesions of any kind during pregnancy and puerperium [2, 73, 75, 82]. Several authors have therefore proposed a role for hormonal stimulation in the pathogenesis of symptomatic hemorrhage from CMs among neonates [2, 73, 75, 82]. It is possible that maternal hormones have an influence on the hemorrhagic tendency of CMs in the neonatal and fetal period. In addition, we note that two of the 21 patients in the neonatal series showed spontaneous regression in size during infancy. These two were the only cases who were not operated in the neonatal period. Although difficult to draw conclusions, the context is intriguing. Given that no other treatment was applied, was the withdrawal of the maternal-hormonal influence contributory?

Familial cerebral CMs

In a recent comparison of deleterious mutations in familial cerebral CMs, Denier et al. concluded that CCM3 mutations might confer a higher risk for cerebral hemorrhage, particularly during childhood [24].

Presentation bias

There might be an element of presentation “bias”, meaning that only severe presentations are identified, taking into account that imaging may not be performed for an isolated seizure episode or other subtle presentations in the pediatric age group.

It is unclear which of these factors has a contributory role, if any, in any specific context, and to what extent. They may all contribute to different extent. Reliable conclusions cannot be reached on this issue because of the rarity of the situation.

Imaging of pediatric CMs

Trans-fontanel cranial ultrasound (US), with its accuracy, specificity, and sensitivity all exceeding 88%, is the diagnostic imaging of choice for any neonate with neurological symptoms and a suspicion of intracranial hemorrhage. US may show the location, size, deformation of the ventricles, and possible etiology. Moreover, the non-invasive nature of US allows frequent follow-up of these lesions. Duplex ultrasonography may add information regarding the vascularity in and around the lesion [44]. Antenatally, ultrasound may demonstrate a hypo- or hyperechoic lesion and the color doppler may detect low impedance flow. Ultrafast fetal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be an option when the index of suspicion is high.

Head computed tomography (CT) usually detects the lesion in a symptomatic child and should be a part of the treatment plan, especially if MRI is impractical and when presentation is acute (Figure 1). Contrastenhanced CT may delineate the cause but lack of evidence does not exclude vascular lesions. Intracerebral hematoma related to CM bleed is usually spherical or multilobulated and well demarcated [67]. Intraventricular bleeds are uncommon in CMs bleeds. Recently, awareness of secondary effects caused by CTinduced radiation has increased, and thus, especially in the pediatric age group, CT scans are reserved for emergency and non-elective cases [13, 30, 43].

Figure 1 Computer tomography scan of hemorrhagic suprasellar cavernous malformation in a newborn.
Figure 1

Computer tomography scan of hemorrhagic suprasellar cavernous malformation in a newborn.

Although ultrasound (in neonates and infants) and/or head CT are suitable for initial imaging investigation, CMs are best imaged on MRI [4, 69]. MRI usually differentiates between blood products of various ages and is able to display the reticulated appearance and ring of hypointensity on the periphery typical of CMs [79]. The lesion has a mixed signal on T1 and T2 sequences (Figures 2–6). On T2 gradient echo (GRE) sequences, the lesions appear as dark areas (Figure 7). Although T2 GRE MRI is highly sensitive for evaluation of CMs, susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) has recently been shown to be the most sensitive MRI sequence [23]. In children, the classical picture may not always be seen, probably due to the lack of hemosiderin [31]. MRI may demonstrate mass effect and predominant cystic changes (“bubbles of blood appearance” [41]) [67]. The cystic morphology in a neonatal/fetal CM are most likely due to the intrauterine hemorrhagic events in these lesions [44]. A sharply demarcated spherical intracerebral hematoma or heterogeneous lesion should make one consider the possibility of a CM [67] (“chronically encapsulated” [83]).

Figure 2 Left posterior frontal cavernous malformation in a 13-year-old who presented with seizures.
Figure 2

Left posterior frontal cavernous malformation in a 13-year-old who presented with seizures.

Figure 3 Midbrain cavernous malformation presenting with hydrocephalus.
Figure 3

Midbrain cavernous malformation presenting with hydrocephalus.

Figure 4 Pontine cavernous malformation in a 5-year-old. Presented with hemiparesis that completely recovered over a period of a few weeks. The lesion is followed due to a small rim of brainstem anterior-lateral to the lesion.
Figure 4

Pontine cavernous malformation in a 5-year-old. Presented with hemiparesis that completely recovered over a period of a few weeks. The lesion is followed due to a small rim of brainstem anterior-lateral to the lesion.

Figure 5 Incidental right pontine cavernous malformation in an 8-year-old diagnosed during computer tomography following a mild head injury.
Figure 5

Incidental right pontine cavernous malformation in an 8-year-old diagnosed during computer tomography following a mild head injury.

Figure 6 Congenital suprasellar cavernous malformation. Presented with a lesional, subarachnoid, and intraventricular bleed in a 5-day-old neonate.
Figure 6

Congenital suprasellar cavernous malformation. Presented with a lesional, subarachnoid, and intraventricular bleed in a 5-day-old neonate.

Figure 7 Right rolandic cavernous malformation in a 16-year-old. Presented with seizures.
Figure 7

Right rolandic cavernous malformation in a 16-year-old. Presented with seizures.

Cerebral intra-arterial angiography, which is usually the gold standard for delineating vascular malformations, involves considerable risks in neonates, including local vascular damage, systemic reaction, hyperviscosity, cardiac failure, transient and permanent neurological deficit, and even death [89]. The present MR angiography technology may be sensitive enough and correlates well with conventional angiography [47]. As CMs are angiographically occult, angiography and magnetic resonance angiography by themselves may not offer any diagnostic contribution when the diagnosis is obvious from MRI, but may be contributory in the context of acute bleeds, to rule out arteriovenous malformation, define the interface to neighboring vasculature, and demonstrate any developmental venous anomaly [67].

Both MRI/magnetic resonance venography and angiography may demonstrate a DVA (Figure 8). DVA is the most common cerebral vascular abnormality, with an incidence of about 2.6% in the general population [88]. Presence of a DVA may suggest the existence of a CM; however, only 13%–40% of CMs are associated with DVA [88].

Figure 8 Right cerebellar cavernous malformation with a developmental venous anomaly.
Figure 8

Right cerebellar cavernous malformation with a developmental venous anomaly.

Differential diagnosis of intracranial hemorrhages

Symptomatic intracranial hemorrhages in a full-term newborn are rare [86]. While true structural lesions causing neonatal hemorrhage are rare [96], both CMs and congenital tumors should be included in the differential diagnosis of any intracerebral hematoma during the antenatal and neonatal period [54]. CM should also be included in the differential diagnosis for any lesion causing hydrocephalus, seizures, and acute neurological deficit. If multiple CMs are identified, they may either represent the familial form of CM, or diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis with central nervous system involvement [5, 35]. Angiographically occult lesions with sharply demarcated spherical intracerebral hematoma with or without evidence of blood products of various ages, as demonstrated on MRI, should point towards diagnosis.

Management and outcome

Management strategies for CMs in children, as for any age, depend on symptoms, location, seizure control, and possibility of life threatening hemorrhage. Surgical management may be given a preferential edge in view of the larger size, aggressive nature, and unpredictable natural history typical of infant CMs. Decision-making may be simplified if the child presents acutely and with severe neurological deficit.

Similar to adult CMs, complete lesion removal is the goal. Residual CMs leaves with it a risk of future bleed. Long-term epilepsy control may be achieved with lesion resection [28, 103]; however, aggressive removal of the adjacent hemosiderin-stained brain tissue is associated with better seizure control for refractory epilepsy [8]. Nevertheless, a clear anatomical-electrophysiological correlation should be proven before surgery, as a CM may be an incidental finding in a patient with an unrelated seizure.

Surgical management of CMs among neonates entails higher risks than in older patients due to the profuse bleeding that may occur following rupture of the pseudo-capsule during dissection [60], in addition to the general risks of a craniotomy in a newborn.

Similar to adults, pediatric BSCMs pose a unique treatment challenge. Surgical morbidity may reach 30%–35%; however, long-term morbidity is about 6%–12% [15, 73, 92]. Advanced technological aids, such as electrophysiological monitoring, neuronavigation, and tractography (such as with diffuse tensor imaging) may increase safety [103].

There is no consensus regarding timing of surgery. The main guiding factor is the pial-contact of the lesion. Even a small rim of normal tissue may be traversed with relative impunity, unless it is the paramedian floor of the fourth ventricle [12, 74]. As a child with a BSCM potentially has several decades of life ahead, one must carefully weigh the risk of potential future hemorrhage events versus surgical morbidity.

The effectiveness of stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for CMs remains to be established in any age group [1, 56, 106]. A possible role for SRS may be in treating high-risk brainstem CMs [63]. SRS has been used to treat children with arteriovenous malformations and tumors, with no specific agedependent complications [42, 78]. To date, published data on SRS for pediatric CMs is scarce [1, 37, 46, 49, 52, 67].

Medical treatments of CMs are not widely accepted, however, Al-Kaabi et al. achieved successful resolution using steroids to treat an infant with a combination of multiple CMs and diffuse neonatal hemangiomas [5]. Recent case reports have described a good response for treatment of infantile CMs of the face and the brain with propranolol [51, 66].

When CMs are detected by antenatal imaging, and cause a major mass effect, delivery by early cesarean section (subject to pulmonary maturation) followed by early surgery may be an option, although there are no clear recommendations in the current literature.

Prognosis

Prognosis in infancy CMs may be worse compared to other age groups due to presentation differences [54]. CMs that are asymptomatic or with mildersymptomatology (such as isolated seizures) are rare in this age group. Additionally, the increased tendency to cause a major bleed, especially in a more vulnerable brain, leads to higher morbidity compared to older age groups [34, 54]. A literature review for neonatal CM showed that 7/21 had a fatal outcome [6, 19, 35, 54, 100] (two of which were abortion) and at least three had hemiparesis [34, 48, 98], supporting the fact that amongst the pediatric group the neonatal are the most vulnerable.

Spontaneous regression of extracranial CM during childhood is uncommon [76]. Hayashi et al. and other authors have also described spontaneous regression of fetal and neonatal intracranial CM [33, 76].

Conclusions

Pediatric CMs, and in particular neonatal/fetal CMs, are uncommon. Definite conclusions pertaining to this subgroup cannot be drawn, but the following features emerge: (i) neonatal/fetal CM are usually larger in size at initial presentation; (ii) life threatening hemorrhages are more common in infancy; (iii) especially amongst young infants and neonates, MRI may show extensive parenchymal cystic changes and may not be classical. Hence, although rare, CM should be included in the differential diagnosis of any bleed in an otherwise normal term neonate; (iv) medical treatments with steroids and propanolol may have a future role in deep-seated and high-risk lesion.

Corresponding author: Jonathan Roth, MD, Department of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Dana Children’s Hospital, Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel-Aviv University, 6, Weizman St., Tel Aviv, 64239, Israel, Tel.: +972-3-697-4686, Fax: +972-3-697-3451, E-mail:

About the authors

Jonathan Roth

Jonathan Roth is a senior pediatric neurosurgeon, and works at the Dana Children’s Hospital (Tel-Aviv Medical Center). His main clinical and academic interests are in pediatric brain tumors (especially ventricular and periventricular tumors), pediatric epilepsy surgery, and endoscopic approaches for treatment of hydrocephalus and brain tumors. Following a clinical fellowship at NYULMC in NY, Jonathan has specialized in tuberous sclerosis related surgery, for the treatment of refractory epilepsy and TSC related brain tumors, and is part of the TSA consensus group regarding treatment of patients with TSC.

Shlomi Constantini

Professor Shlomi Constantini has been the director of the department of Pediatric Neurosurgery at Dana Children’s Hospital since 1996. After completing medical degree and neurosurgical residency, Shlomi received his training from Fred Epstein at NYU, specializing in complex brain and spinal cord surgical challenges in children, focusing on those that are most difficult to operate. His department is the largest tertiary facility in Israel and includes three senior neurosurgeons, a nurse practitioner and several international trainees at any time. Shlomi is intensely performing research and has published over 150 papers in peer-reviewed journals and over 40 book chapters. Professor Constantini is a member of the editorial board of five journals. He has many international assignments, among them: vice president of the EANS (European association of Neurosurgical Societies), president of the IFNE (International Federation for Neuroendoscopy), and secretary of ISPN (International Society Pediatric Neurosurgery).

References

[1] Acciarri N, Galassi E, Giulioni M, Pozzati E, Grasso V, Palandri G, et al. Cavernous malformations of the central nervous system in the pediatric age group. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2009;45:81–104.10.1159/000209283Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[2] Aiba T, Tanaka R, Koike T, Kameyama S, Takeda N, Komata T. Natural history of intracranial cavernous malformations. J Neurosurg. 1995;83:56–9.10.3171/jns.1995.83.1.0056Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[3] Alexiou GA, Mpairamidis E, Sfakianos G, Prodromou N. Surgical management of brain cavernomas in children. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2009;45:375–8.10.1159/000260907Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[4] Al-Holou WN, O′Lynnger TM, Pandey AS, Gemmete JJ, Thompson BG, Muraszko KM, et al. Natural history and imaging prevalence of cavernous malformations in children and young adults. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;9:198–205.10.3171/2011.11.PEDS11390Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[5] Al-Kaabi A, Yanofsky R, Bunge M, Hyman J, Rafay MF. Diffuse hemangiomatosis with predominant central nervous system involvement. Pediatr Neurol. 2009;40:54–7.10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.09.022Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[6] Arnstein LH, Boldrey E, Naffziger HC. A case report and survey of brain tumors during the neonatal period. J Neurosurg. 1951;8:315–9.10.3171/jns.1951.8.3.0315Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[7] Azam M, O′Donovan DJ. Intracranial cavernous hemangioma and seizures in a newborn infant. J Pediatr. 2009;155:298.10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.01.057Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[8] Baumann CR, Acciarri N, Bertalanffy H, Devinsky O, Elger CE, Lo Russo G, et al. Seizure outcome after resection of supratentorial cavernous malformations: a study of 168 patients. Epilepsia. 2007;48:559–63.10.1111/j.1528-1167.2006.00941.xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[9] Baumgartner JE, Ater JL, Ha CS, Kuttesch JF, Leeds NE, Fuller GN, et al. Pathologically proven cavernous angiomas of the brain following radiation therapy for pediatric brain tumors. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2003;39:201–7.10.1159/000072472Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[10] Bergeson PS, Rekate HL, Tack ED. Cerebral cavernous angiomas in the newborn. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1992;31:435–7.10.1177/000992289203100711Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[11] Bhardwaj RD, Auguste KI, Kulkarni AV, Dirks PB, Drake JM, Rutka JT. Management of pediatric brainstem cavernous malformations: experience over 20 years at the hospital for sick children. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009;4:458–64.10.3171/2009.6.PEDS0923Search in Google Scholar

[12] Braga BP, Costa LB Jr, Lemos S, Vilela MD. Cavernous malformations of the brainstem in infants. Report of two cases and review of the literature. J Neurosurg. 2006;104:429–33.Search in Google Scholar

[13] Brenner D, Elliston C, Hall E, Berdon W. Estimated risks of radiation-induced fatal cancer from pediatric CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2001;176:289–96.10.2214/ajr.176.2.1760289Search in Google Scholar

[14] Bristot R, Santoro A, Fantozzi L, Delfini R. Cavernoma of the cavernous sinus: case report. Surg Neurol. 1997;48:160–3.10.1016/S0090-3019(97)00033-5Search in Google Scholar

[15] Bruneau M, Bijlenga P, Reverdin A, Rilliet B, Regli L, Villemure JG, et al. Early surgery for brainstem cavernomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2006;148:405–14.10.1007/s00701-005-0671-7Search in Google Scholar

[16] Bruni P, Massari A, Greco R, Hernandez R, Oddi G, Chiappetta F. Subarachnoid hemorrhage from cavernous angioma of the cauda equina: case report. Surg Neurol. 1994;41:226–9.10.1016/0090-3019(94)90127-9Search in Google Scholar

[17] Buonaguidi R, Canapicci R, Mimassi N, Ferdeghini M. Intrasellar cavernous hemangioma. Neurosurgery. 1984;14:732–4.10.1227/00006123-198406000-00014Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[18] Burn S, Gunny R, Phipps K, Gaze M, Hayward R. Incidence of cavernoma development in children after radiotherapy for brain tumors. J Neurosurg. 2007;106:379–83.10.3171/ped.2007.106.5.379Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[19] Canevini P, Farneti A, Flauto U. Report of a case of cavernous hemangioma of the dura mater in a 2-day old newborn. Folia Hered Pathol (Milano). 1963;12:163–6.Search in Google Scholar

[20] Consales A, Piatelli G, Ravegnani M, Pavanello M, Striano P, Zoli ML, et al. Treatment and outcome of children with cerebral cavernomas: a survey on 32 patients. Neurol Sci. 2010;31: 117–23.10.1007/s10072-009-0157-0Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[21] Craig HD, Gunel M, Cepeda O, Johnson EW, Ptacek L, Steinberg GK, et al. Multilocus linkage identifies two new loci for a mendelian form of stroke, cerebral cavernous malformation, at 7p15-13 and 3q25.2-27. Hum Mol Genet. 1998;7:1851–8.10.1093/hmg/7.12.1851Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[22] Dashti SR, Hoffer A, Hu YC, Selman WR. Molecular genetics of familial cerebral cavernous malformations. Neurosurg Focus. 2006;21:e2.10.3171/foc.2006.21.1.3Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[23] de Souza JM, Domingues RC, Cruz LC Jr, Domingues FS, Iasbeck T, Gasparetto EL. Susceptibility-weighted imaging for the evaluation of patients with familial cerebral cavernous malformations: a comparison with t2-weighted fast spin-echo and gradient-echo sequences. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2008;29:154–8.10.3174/ajnr.A0748Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[24] Denier C, Labauge P, Bergametti F, Marchelli F, Riant F, Arnoult M, et al. Genotype-phenotype correlations in cerebral cavernous malformations patients. Ann Neurol. 2006;60:550–6.10.1002/ana.20947Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[25] Denier C, Labauge P, Brunereau L, Cavé-Riant F, Marchelli F, Arnoult M, et al. Clinical features of cerebral cavernous malformations patients with KRIT1 mutations. Ann Neurol. 2004;55:213–20.10.1002/ana.10804Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[26] Di Rocco C, Iannelli A, Tamburrini G. Cavernomas of the central nervous system in children. A report of 22 cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1996;138:1267–74; discussion 73-4.10.1007/BF01411054Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[27] Escott EJ, Rubinstein D, Cajade-Law AG, Sze CI. Suprasellar cavernous malformation presenting with extensive subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neuroradiology. 2001;43:313–6.10.1007/PL00006048Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[28] Ferroli P, Casazza M, Marras C, Mendola C, Franzini A, Broggi G. Cerebral cavernomas and seizures: a retrospective study on 163 patients who underwent pure lesionectomy. Neurol Sci. 2006;26:390–4.10.1007/s10072-006-0521-2Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[29] Fritschi JA, Reulen HJ, Spetzler RF, Zabramski JM. Cavernous malformations of the brain stem. A review of 139 cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1994;130:35–46.10.1007/BF01405501Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[30] Hall P, Adami HO, Trichopoulos D, Pedersen NL, Lagiou P, Ekbom A, et al. Effect of low doses of ionising radiation in infancy on cognitive function in adulthood: Swedish population based cohort study. Br Med J 2004;328:19.10.1136/bmj.328.7430.19Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[31] Hashimoto H, Sakaki T, Ishida Y, Shimokawara T. Fetal cavernous angioma-case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1997;37:346–9.10.2176/nmc.37.346Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[32] Hayashi T, Harada K, Honda E, Utsunomiya H, Hashimoto T. Rare neonatal intracerebral hemorrhage. Two cases in full-term infants. Childs Nerv Syst. 1987;3:161–4.10.1007/BF00717893Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[33] Hayashi S, Kondoh T, Morishita A, Sasayama T, Sanabria EA, Kohmura E. Congenital cavernous angioma exhibits a progressive decrease in size after birth. Childs Nerv Syst. 2004;20:199–203.10.1007/s00381-003-0844-8Search in Google Scholar

[34] Henrich W, Stupin JH, Buhling KJ, Buhrer C, Bassir C, Dudenhausen JW. Prenatal sonographic findings of thalamic cavernous angioma. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2002;19: 518–22.10.1046/j.1469-0705.2002.00700.xSearch in Google Scholar

[35] Holden KR, Alexander F. Diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis. Pediatrics. 1970;46:411–21.10.1542/peds.46.3.411Search in Google Scholar

[36] Honda M, Toda K, Baba H, Yonekura M. Congenital cavernous angioma of the temporal bone: case report. Surg Neurol. 2003;59:120–3; discussion 123.10.1016/S0090-3019(02)00985-0Search in Google Scholar

[37] Huang YC, Tseng CK, Chang CN, Wei KC, Liao CC, Hsu PW. LINAC radiosurgery for intracranial cavernous malformation: 10-year experience. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2006;108: 750–6.10.1016/j.clineuro.2006.04.001Search in Google Scholar

[38] Hwang JF, Yau CW, Huang JK, Tsai CY. Apoplectic optochiasmal syndrome due to intrinsic cavernous hemangioma. Case report. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1993;13:232–6.Search in Google Scholar

[39] Iwasa H, Indei I, Sato F. Intraventricular cavernous hemangioma. Case report. J Neurosurg. 1983;59:153–7.10.3171/jns.1983.59.1.0153Search in Google Scholar

[40] Jooma R, Kendall BE, Hayward RD. Intracranial tumors in neonates: a report of seventeen cases. Surg Neurol. 1984;21:165–70.10.1016/0090-3019(84)90336-7Search in Google Scholar

[41] Kan P, Tubay M, Osborn A, Blaser S, Couldwell WT. Radiographic features of tumefactive giant cavernous angiomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2008;150:49–55; discussion 55.10.1007/s00701-007-1455-zSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[42] Kano H, Niranjan A, Kondziolka D, Flickinger JC, Pollack IF, Jakacki RI, et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for pilocytic astrocytomas part 2: outcomes in pediatric patients. J Neurooncol. 2009;95:219–29.10.1007/s11060-009-9912-6Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[43] Karlsson P, Holmberg E, Lundell M, Mattsson A, Holm LE, Wallgren A. Intracranial tumors after exposure to ionizing radiation during infancy: a pooled analysis of two Swedish cohorts of 28,008 infants with skin hemangioma. Radiat Res. 1998;150:357–64.10.2307/3579984Search in Google Scholar

[44] Karmazyn B, Michovitz S, Sirota L, Drozd T, Horev G. Intracranial cavernous hemangioma in a neonate. Pediatr Radiol. 2001;31:610–2.10.1007/s002470100488Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[45] Kilic T, Pamir MN, Kullu S, Eren F, Ozek MM, Black PM. Expression of structural proteins and angiogenic factors in cerebrovascular anomalies. Neurosurgery. 2000;46:1179–91; discussion 91–2.10.1097/00006123-200005000-00032Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[46] Kim DG, Choe WJ, Paek SH, Chung HT, Kim IH, Han DH. Radiosurgery of intracranial cavernous malformations. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2002;144:869–78; discussion 878.10.1007/s00701-002-0983-9Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[47] Kojima M, Mabuchi J, Tsuda N, Nagasawa S. The efficacy of MR angiography in detecting small asymptomatic cerebral aneurysms in clinical examination of the brain. Surg Cereb Stroke. 1994;22:181–6.10.2335/scs1987.22.3_181Search in Google Scholar

[48] Kon T, Mori H, Hasegawa K, Nishiyama K, Tanaka R, Takahashi H. Neonatal cavernous angioma located in the basal ganglia with profuse intraoperative bleeding. Childs Nerv Syst. 2007;23:449–53.10.1007/s00381-006-0231-3Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[49] Kondziolka D, Lunsford LD, Kestle JR. The natural history of cerebral cavernous malformations. J Neurosurg. 1995;83:820–4.10.3171/jns.1995.83.5.0820Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[50] Krisht KM, Whitehead KJ, Niazi T, Couldwell WT. The pathogenetic features of cerebral cavernous malformations: a comprehensive review with therapeutic implications. Neurosurg Focus. 2010;29:E2.10.3171/2010.6.FOCUS10135Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[51] Leaute-Labreze C, Dumas de la Roque E, Hubiche T, Boralevi F, Thambo JB, Taieb A. Propranolol for severe hemangiomas of infancy. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2649–51.10.1056/NEJMc0708819Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[52] Lee JW, Kim DS, Shim KW, Chang JH, Huh SK, Park YG, et al. Management of intracranial cavernous malformation in pediatric patients. Childs Nerv Syst. 2008;24:321–7.10.1007/s00381-007-0465-8Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[53] Lena G, Ternier J, Paz-Paredes A, Scavarda D. [Central nervous system cavernomas in children]. Neurochirurgie. 2007;53:223–37.10.1016/j.neuchi.2007.02.011Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[54] Leung KY, Tang MH, Lam TP, Fan YW, Shek TW, Wong KY, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of a cavernous angioma associated with intracranial hemorrhage: report of one case and review of the literature. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2004;24:800–3.10.1002/uog.1778Search in Google Scholar

[55] Lew SM. Giant posterior fossa cavernous malformations in 2 infants with familial cerebral cavernomatosis: the case for early screening. Neurosurg Focus. 2010;29:E18.10.3171/2010.5.FOCUS10119Search in Google Scholar

[56] Liu AL, Wang CC, Dai K. [Gamma knife radiosurgery for cavernous malformations]. Zhongguo Yi Xue Ke Xue Yuan Xue Bao. 2005;27:18–21.Search in Google Scholar

[57] Lombardi D, Giovanelli M, de Tribolet N. Sellar and parasellar extra-axial cavernous hemangiomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1994;130:47–54.10.1007/BF01405502Search in Google Scholar

[58] Lombardi D, Scheithauer BW, Villani RM, Giovanelli M, de Tribolet N. Cavernous haemangioma of the pineal region. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1996;138:678–83.10.1007/BF01411472Search in Google Scholar

[59] Martínez-Lage JF, de la Fuente I, Ros de San Pedro J, Fuster JL, Pérez-Espejo MA, Herrero MT. Cavernomas in children with brain tumors: a late complication of radiotherapy. Neurocirugia (Astur). 2008;19:50–4.10.1016/S1130-1473(08)70249-5Search in Google Scholar

[60] Maruishi M, Shima T, Okada Y, Nishida M, Yamane K, Okita S. Cavernous sinus cavernoma treated with radiation therapy – case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1994;34:773–7.10.2176/nmc.34.773Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[61] Mindea SA, Yang BP, Shenkar R, Bendok B, Batjer HH, Awad IA. Cerebral cavernous malformations: clinical insights from genetic studies. Neurosurg Focus. 2006;21:e1.10.3171/foc.2006.21.1.2Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[62] Momoshima S, Shiga H, Yuasa Y, Higuchi N, Kawase T, Toya S. MR findings in extracerebral cavernous angiomas of the middle cranial fossa: report of two cases and review of the literature. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1991;12:756–60.Search in Google Scholar

[63] Monaco EA, Khan AA, Niranjan A, Kano H, Grandhi R, Kondziolka D, et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for the treatment of symptomatic brainstem cavernous malformations. Neurosurg Focus. 2010;29:E11.10.3171/2010.7.FOCUS10151Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[64] Moran NF, Fish DR, Kitchen N, Shorvon S, Kendall BE, Stevens JM. Supratentorial cavernous haemangiomas and epilepsy: a review of the literature and case series. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;66:561–8.10.1136/jnnp.66.5.561Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[65] Moritake K, Handa H, Nozaki K, Tomiwa K. Tentorial cavernous angioma with calcification in a neonate. Neurosurgery. 1985;16:207–11.10.1227/00006123-198502000-00013Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[66] Moschovi M, Alexiou GA, Stefanaki K, Tourkantoni N, Prodromou N. Propranolol treatment for a giant infantile brain cavernoma. J Child Neurol. 2010;25:653–5.10.1177/0883073810363917Search in Google Scholar

[67] Mottolese C, Hermier M, Stan H, Jouvet A, Saint-Pierre G, Froment JC, et al. Central nervous system cavernomas in the pediatric age group. Neurosurg Rev. 2001;24:55–71; discussion 72–3.10.1007/PL00014581Search in Google Scholar

[68] Newman H, Nevo M, Constantini S, Maimon S, Kesler A. Chiasmal cavernoma: a rare cause of acute visual loss improved by prompt surgery. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2008;44:414–7.10.1159/000149911Search in Google Scholar

[69] Ng BH, Mulyadi E, Pereira JK, Ghedia S, Pinner J, Mowat D, et al. Familial cerebral cavernous haemangioma diagnosed in an infant with a rapidly growing cerebral lesion. Australas Radiol. 2006;50:583–90.10.1111/j.1440-1673.2006.01638.xSearch in Google Scholar

[70] Nimjee SM, Powers CJ, Bulsara KR. Review of the literature on de novo formation of cavernous malformations of the central nervous system after radiation therapy. Neurosurg Focus. 2006;21:e4.10.3171/foc.2006.21.1.5Search in Google Scholar

[71] Notelet L, Houtteville JP, Khoury S, Lechevalier B, Chapon F. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in cerebral cavernomas: an immunocytochemical study of 42 cases. Surg Neurol. 1997;47:364–70.10.1016/S0090-3019(96)00248-0Search in Google Scholar

[72] Perrini P, Lanzino G. The association of venous developmental anomalies and cavernous malformations: pathophysiological, diagnostic, and surgical considerations. Neurosurg Focus. 2006;21:e5.10.3171/foc.2006.21.1.6Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[73] Porter RW, Detwiler PW, Spetzler RF, Lawton MT, Baskin JJ, Derksen PT, et al. Cavernous malformations of the brainstem: experience with 100 patients. J Neurosurg. 1999;90:50–8.10.3171/jns.1999.90.1.0050Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[74] Porter PJ, Willinsky RA, Harper W, Wallace MC. Cerebral cavernous malformations: natural history and prognosis after clinical deterioration with or without hemorrhage. J Neurosurg. 1997;87:190–7.10.3171/jns.1997.87.2.0190Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[75] Pozzati E, Acciarri N, Tognetti F, Marliani F, Giangaspero F. Growth, subsequent bleeding, and de novo appearance of cerebral cavernous angiomas. Neurosurgery. 1996;38:662–9; discussion 669–70.10.1227/00006123-199604000-00006Search in Google Scholar

[76] Prensky AL, Gado M. Angiographic resolution of a neonatal intracranial cavernous hemangioma coincident with steroid therapy. Case report. J Neurosurg. 1973;39:99–103.10.3171/jns.1973.39.1.0099Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[77] Ravenel SD. Posterior fossa hemorrhage in the term newborn: report of two cases. Pediatrics. 1979;64:39–42.10.1542/peds.64.1.39Search in Google Scholar

[78] Reyns N, Blond S, Gauvrit JY, Touzet G, Coche B, Pruvo JP, et al. Role of radiosurgery in the management of cerebral arteriovenous malformations in the pediatric age group: data from a 100-patient series. Neurosurgery. 2007;60:268–76; discussion 276.10.1227/01.NEU.0000249277.72063.BDSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[79] Rigamonti D, Drayer BP, Johnson PC, Hadley MN, Zabramski J, Spetzler RF. The MRI appearance of cavernous malformations (angiomas). J Neurosurg. 1987;67:518–24.10.3171/jns.1987.67.4.0518Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[80] Rigamonti D, Johnson PC, Spetzler RF, Hadley MN, Drayer BP. Cavernous malformations and capillary telangiectasia: a spectrum within a single pathological entity. Neurosurgery. 1991;28:60–4.10.1227/00006123-199101000-00010Search in Google Scholar

[81] Rigamonti D, Pappas CT, Spetzler RF, Johnson PC. Extracerebral cavernous angiomas of the middle fossa. Neurosurgery. 1990;27:306–10.10.1227/00006123-199008000-00024Search in Google Scholar

[82] Robinson JR, Awad IA, Little JR. Natural history of the cavernous angioma. J Neurosurg. 1991;75:709–14.10.3171/jns.1991.75.5.0709Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[83] Roda JM, Carceller F, Perez-Higueras A, Morales C. Encapsulated intracerebral hematomas: a defined entity. Case report. J Neurosurg. 1993;78:829–33.10.3171/jns.1993.78.5.0829Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[84] Rothbart D, Awad IA, Lee J, Kim J, Harbaugh R, Criscuolo GR. Expression of angiogenic factors and structural proteins in central nervous system vascular malformations. Neurosurgery. 1996;38:915–24; discussion 24–5.10.1097/00006123-199605000-00011Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[85] Russell DS, Rubinstein LJ. Pathology of tumors of the nervous system. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1977.Search in Google Scholar

[86] Sakai N, Yamada H, Nishimura Y, Shirakami S, Futamura A, Andoh T. Intracranial cavernous angioma in the 1st year of life and a review of the literature. Childs Nerv Syst. 1992;8:49–52.10.1007/BF00316563Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[87] Saldaña CJ, Zimman H, Alonso P, Mata PR. Neonatal cavernous hemangioma of the dura mater: case report. Neurosurgery. 1991;29:602–5.10.1227/00006123-199110000-00021Search in Google Scholar

[88] San Millán Ruíz D, Gailloud P. Cerebral developmental venous anomalies. Childs Nerv Syst. 2010;26:1395–406.10.1007/s00381-010-1253-4Search in Google Scholar

[89] Scott RM, Barnes P, Kupsky W, Adelman LS. Cavernous angiomas of the central nervous system in children. J Neurosurg. 1992;76:38–46.10.3171/jns.1992.76.1.0038Search in Google Scholar

[90] Singla A, Brace O′Neill JE, Smith E, Scott RM. Cavernous malformations of the brain after treatment for acute lymphocytic leukemia: presentation and long-term follow-up. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2013;11:127–32.10.3171/2012.11.PEDS12235Search in Google Scholar

[91] Steinberg GK, Chang SD, Gewirtz RJ, Lopez JR. Microsurgical resection of brainstem, thalamic, and basal ganglia angiographically occult vascular malformations. Neurosurgery. 2000;46:260–70; discussion 270–1.10.1097/00006123-200002000-00003Search in Google Scholar

[92] Stephenson G, Afshar F. Suprasellar cavernous angioma causing pituitary and hypothalamic dysfunction. Br J Neurosurg. 1994;8:225–7.10.3109/02688699409027973Search in Google Scholar

[93] Sure U, Butz N, Schlegel J, Siegel AM, Wakat JP, Mennel HD, et al. Endothelial proliferation, neoangiogenesis, and potential de novo generation of cerebrovascular malformations. J Neurosurg. 2001;94:972–7.10.3171/jns.2001.94.6.0972Search in Google Scholar

[94] Suzuki Y, Shibuya M, Baskaya MK, Takakura S, Yamamoto M, Saito K, et al. Extracerebral cavernous angiomas of the cavernous sinus in the middle fossa. Surg Neurol. 1996;45:123–32.10.1016/S0090-3019(96)80004-8Search in Google Scholar

[95] Takeshita M, Kagawa M, Izawa M, Kitamura K. Hemorrhagic stroke in infancy, childhood and adolescence. Surg Neurol. 1986;26:496–500.10.1016/0090-3019(86)90263-6Search in Google Scholar

[96] Tekkok IH, Ventureyra EC. Spontaneous intracranial hemorrhage of structural origin during the first year of life. Childs Nerv Syst. 1997;13:154–65.10.1007/s003810050061Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[97] Tirakotai W, Fremann S, Soerensen N, Roggendorf W, Siegel AM, Mennel HD, et al. Biological activity of paediatric cerebral cavernomas: an immunohistochemical study of 28 patients. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:685–91.10.1007/s00381-006-0044-4Search in Google Scholar

[98] Udayakumaran S, Paraskevopoulos D, Cagnano E, Roth J, Constantini S. Spontaneous bleeding into a suprasellar cavernous angioma of a neonate: case report and literature review. Childs Nerv Syst. 2011;27:303–11.10.1007/s00381-010-1161-7Search in Google Scholar

[99] Ueda S, Saito A, Inomori S, Kim I. Cavernous angioma of the cauda equina producing subarachnoid hemorrhage. Case report. J Neurosurg. 1987;66:134–6.10.3171/jns.1987.66.1.0134Search in Google Scholar

[100] Vanlieferinghen P, Lemery D, Sevely A, Dechelotte P, Bloom MC, Raynaud EJ. [Prenatal diagnosis of congenital cerebral tumors. Apropos of 3 cases]. Arch Fr Pediatr. 1993;50:39–41.Search in Google Scholar

[101] Wang CC, Liu A, Zhang JT, Sun B, Zhao YL. Surgical management of brain-stem cavernous malformations: report of 137 cases. Surg Neurol. 2003;59:444–54; discussion 454.10.1016/S0090-3019(03)00187-3Search in Google Scholar

[102] Washington CW, McCoy KE, Zipfel GJ. Update on the natural history of cavernous malformations and factors predicting aggressive clinical presentation. Neurosurg Focus. 2010;29:E7.10.3171/2010.5.FOCUS10149Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[103] Xia C, Zhang R, Mao Y, Zhou L. Pediatric cavernous malformation in the central nervous system: report of 66 cases. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2009;45:105–13.10.1159/000209284Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[104] Yamamoto M, Fukushima T, Ikeda K, Nagasaka S, Sakamoto S, Oka K, et al. Intracranial cavernous angioma manifesting as subarachnoid hemorrhage-case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1993;33:706–9.10.2176/nmc.33.706Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[105] Zentner J, Grodd W, Hassler W. Cavernous angioma of the optic tract. J Neurol. 1989;236:117–9.10.1007/BF00314409Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[106] Zhang N, Pan L, Wang BJ, Wang EM, Dai JZ, Cai PW. Gamma knife radiosurgery for cavernous hemangiomas. J Neurosurg. 2000;93(Suppl 3):74–7.10.3171/jns.2000.93.supplement_3.0074Search in Google Scholar

[107] Zhu Y, Wu Q, Fass M, Xu JF, You C, Müller O, et al. In vitro characterization of the angiogenic phenotype and genotype of the endothelia derived from sporadic cerebral cavernous malformations. Neurosurgery. 2011;69:722–31; discussion 731–2.10.1227/NEU.0b013e318219569fSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[108] Zhu Y, Wu Q, Xu JF, Miller D, Sandalcioglu IE, Zhang JM, et al. Differential angiogenesis function of CCM2 and CCM3 in cerebral cavernous malformations. Neurosurg Focus. 2010;29:E1.10.3171/2010.5.FOCUS1090Search in Google Scholar PubMed

The authors stated that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

Received: 2013-8-30
Accepted: 2013-10-13
Published Online: 2013-12-05
Published in Print: 2013-12-01

©2013 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Masthead
  2. Masthead
  3. Editorial
  4. Innovative Neurosurgery: the first year
  5. Reviews
  6. Innovations in the surgical treatment of gliomas
  7. Cerebral cavernous malformations in the pediatric age group
  8. Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and stereotactic radiation therapy (SRT) for neurooncological and neurological diseases: state of the art and future perspectives
  9. Case Report
  10. Endoscopic resection of an entirely intracavernous cavernoma
  11. Technical Note
  12. Surgical technique for preventing subcutaneous migration of distal lumboperitoneal shunt catheters
  13. Book Reviews
  14. Book Review
  15. Calendar of Events
  16. Calendar of Events
  17. Acknowledgement to our Reviewers
  18. Acknowledgement to our Reviewers
https://doi.org/10.1515/ins-2013-0018
Keywords for this article
Cavernous malformation; children; intracranial bleed

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Masthead
  2. Masthead
  3. Editorial
  4. Innovative Neurosurgery: the first year
  5. Reviews
  6. Innovations in the surgical treatment of gliomas
  7. Cerebral cavernous malformations in the pediatric age group
  8. Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and stereotactic radiation therapy (SRT) for neurooncological and neurological diseases: state of the art and future perspectives
  9. Case Report
  10. Endoscopic resection of an entirely intracavernous cavernoma
  11. Technical Note
  12. Surgical technique for preventing subcutaneous migration of distal lumboperitoneal shunt catheters
  13. Book Reviews
  14. Book Review
  15. Calendar of Events
  16. Calendar of Events
  17. Acknowledgement to our Reviewers
  18. Acknowledgement to our Reviewers
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 14.10.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ins-2013-0018/html?lang=en&srsltid=AfmBOorTXcmzTzFrtqioUMVqfDW6UAwQ6TLa7G133hJPiyFLe8nyfXPm
Scroll to top button