Home Translating into an endangered language: filling in lexical gaps as Language Making
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Translating into an endangered language: filling in lexical gaps as Language Making

  • Päivi Kuusi EMAIL logo , Helka Riionheimo and Leena Kolehmainen
Published/Copyright: March 11, 2022
International Journal of the Sociology of Language
From the journal International Journal of the Sociology of Language Volume 2022 Issue 274

Abstract

In this article, we analyse translation in the context of revitalisation from the point of view of Language Making. Both translation and revitalisation are based on the idea of languages as distinct entities, and together they are doubly inclined to draw clear-cut borders between languages. The data come from a series of translation courses targeted at speakers and learners of Karelian, a critically endangered Finnic language spoken in Finland and Russia. By analysing the reflective assignments of the translation course participants and focusing on how they report on encountering and overcoming lexical gaps, we examine a very concrete case of Language Making: the creation of new lexical items for Karelian for the purposes of a translation task. Since coining neologisms in our data is mostly based on borrowing or calquing, the data illustrate how the participants perceive language boundaries and the connections between Karelian and other languages. Contrary to what the intersection between translation and revitalisation suggests, a rather flexible view on linguistic borders is displayed. Participants fill in lexical gaps by drawing on all linguistic resources available to them: mainly Finnish and Russian, but also “international” resources and occasionally other languages or other Karelian dialects. To a lesser extent, the data also display the participants’ competing and conflicting ideologies of what is Karelian, what belongs to it and on which or whose model to base the neologisms.

Keywords: endangered language; Karelian; Language Making; lexical gap; neologism; revitalisation; translation; translator training
Corresponding author: Päivi Kuusi, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland, E-mail:

References

Anttikoski, Esa (ed.). 2003. Developing written Karelian. Papers from the Karelian session in the 11th International Conference on Methods of Dialectology (Studies in Languages 38). Joensuu: University of Joensuu.Search in Google Scholar

Arantola, Laura & Katerina Paalamo. 2019. Eteläkarjalan elvyttämisen vaikeuksista [On the challenges of revitalisating Southern Karelian]. In Eeva-Kaisa Linna & Anneli Sarhimaa (eds.), Meijän hierus. Esseitä karjalan kielestä [Meijän hierus. Essays on the Karelian language], 24–32. Helsinki: Karjalan Sivistysseura.Search in Google Scholar

Blommaert, Jan & Ad Backus. 2013. Superdiverse repertoires and the individual. In Ingrid de Saint-Georges & Jean-Jacques Weber (eds.), Multilingualism and multimodality, 11–32. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.10.1007/978-94-6209-266-2_2Search in Google Scholar

Bugarski, Ranko. 2012. Language, identity and borders in the former Serbo-Croatian area. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(3). 219–235.10.1080/01434632.2012.663376Search in Google Scholar

Chesterman, Andrew. 1997. Memes of translation: The spread of ideas in translation theory. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/btl.22Search in Google Scholar

Cowley, Stephen. 2005. Languaging: How babies and bonobos lock on to human modes of life. International Journal of Computational Cognition 3(1). 44–55.Search in Google Scholar

Cronin, Michael. 2003. Translation and globalization. London & New York: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar

Diaz Fouces, Oscar. 2005. Translation policy for minority languages in the European Union. Globalisation and resistance. In Albert Branchadell & Lovell Margaret West (eds.), Less translated languages, 95−104. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/btl.58.09diaSearch in Google Scholar

Dizdar, Dilek. 2006. Translation. Um-und Irrwege (Ost-West-Express. Kultur und Übersetzung 1). Berlin: Frank & Timme.Search in Google Scholar

Dizdar, Dilek. 2019. Translation und Grenze. Versuch einer translationswissenschaftlichen Neufiguration. In Nicolas Engel & Stefan Köngeter (eds.), Übersetzung. Über die Möglichkeit, Pädagogik anders zu denken, 57−74. Wiesbaden: Springer.10.1007/978-3-658-20321-4_4Search in Google Scholar

Dizdar, Dilek & Andreas Gipper. 2015. Einleitung: Übersetzung als Konstruktionselement nationaler Identität. In Dilek Dizdar, Andreas Gipper & Michael Schreiber (eds.), Nationenbildung und Übersetzung (Ost-West-Express. Kultur und Übersetzung 23), 7–16. Berlin: Frank & Timme.Search in Google Scholar

Dufva, Hannele, Mari Aro, Minna Suni & Olli-Pekka Salo. 2011. Onko kieltä olemassa? Teoreettinen kielitiede, soveltava kielitiede ja kielen oppimisen tutkimus [Does language exist? Theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics, and research on language learning]. AFinLA-e. Soveltavan kielentutkimuksen tutkimuksia. 3 [AFinLA-e. Studies on Applied Linguistics]. 22−43. https://journal.fi/afinla/article/view/4454 (accessed 10 December 2020).Search in Google Scholar

EMT. 2017. European Master’s in Translation. Competence Framework 2017. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/emt_competence_fwk_2017_en_web.pdf (accessed 20 December 2020).Search in Google Scholar

Floros, Georgios. 2004. Parallel texts in translating and interpreting. Translation Studies in the New Millennium 2. 33–41.Search in Google Scholar

Gal, Susan. 2015. Politics of translation. Annual Review of Anthropology 44. 225–240.10.1146/annurev-anthro-102214-013806Search in Google Scholar

Irvine, Judith T. & Susan Gal. 2000. Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In Paul V. Kroskrity (ed.), Regimes of language. Ideologies, polities, and identities, 35–84. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.Search in Google Scholar

Iso-Ahola, Riikka 2017: Literary translators as revitalisers of an endangered language. trans-kom. Journal of Translation and Technical Communication Research 10(2). 164–187. www.trans-kom.eu/bd10nr02/trans-kom_10_02_03_Iso-Ahola_Revitalisers.20171206.pdf (accessed 20 December 2020).Search in Google Scholar

Iso-Ahola, Riikka. Forthcoming. Kaunokirjallisuutta karjalaksi – uhanalaisen kielen käännöskulttuurit [Fiction in Karelian − the translation cultures of an endangered language/working title]. Joensuu: University of Eastern Finland Doctoral dissertation.Search in Google Scholar

Karjalainen, Heini, Ulriikka Puura, Riho Grünthal & Svetlana Kovaleva. 2013. Karelian in Russia. ELDIA Case Specific Report (Studies in European Language Diversity 26). Mainz: Johannes-Gutenberg-Universität. https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/view/o:314612 (accessed 10 December 2020).Search in Google Scholar

Koskinen, Kaisa & Tuija Kinnunen. 2010. Introduction. In Tuija Kinnunen & Kaisa Koskinen (eds.), Translators’ agency (Tampere Studies in Language, Translation and Culture. Series B4), 4–9. Tampere: Tampere University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Koskinen, Kaisa & Päivi Kuusi. 2017: Translator training for language activists agency and empowerment of minority language translators. trans-kom. Journal of Translation and Technical Communication Research 10(2). 188–213. http://www.trans-kom.eu/bd10nr02/trans-kom_10_02_04_Koskinen_Kuusi_Activists.20171206.pdf (accessed 6 October 2021).Search in Google Scholar

Krämer, Philipp, Ulrike Vogl & Leena Kolehmainen. 2022. What is “Language Making”? International Journal of the Sociology of Language 274. 1–27.10.1515/ijsl-2021-0016Search in Google Scholar

Kuusi, Päivi, Leena Kolehmainen & Helka Riionheimo. 2017. Introduction. Multiple roles of translation in the context of minority languages and revitalisation. trans-kom. Journal of Translation and Technical Communication Research 10(2). 138–163. www.trans-kom.eu/bd10nr02/trans-kom_10_02_02_Kuusi_Kolehmainen_Riionheimo_Introduction.20171206.pdf (accessed 6 October 2021).Search in Google Scholar

Kuusi, Päivi, Kaisa Koskinen & Helka Riionheimo. 2019. Seek and thou shalt learn. Information seeking and language learning in minority language translation. In Melita Koletnik & Nicolas Froeliger (eds.), Translation and language teaching: Continuing the dialogue, 39–57. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Search in Google Scholar

Laakso, Johanna. 2018. Language borders and cultural encounters. A linguistic view on interdisciplinarity in the research of intercultural contacts. In Marjatta Palander, Helka Riionheimo & Vesa Koivisto (eds.), On the border of language and dialect (Studia Fennica Linguistica 21), 38–55. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.Search in Google Scholar

Laakso, Johanna, Anneli Sarhimaa, Sia Spiliopoulou Åkermark & Reetta Toivanen. 2016. Towards openly multilingual policies and practices. Assessing minority language maintenance across Europe. (Linguistic Diversity and Language Rights 11). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Search in Google Scholar

Milroy, James. 2001. Language ideologies and the consequences of standardization. Journal of Sociolinguistics 5(4). 530–555.10.1111/1467-9481.00163Search in Google Scholar

Moshnikov, Ilia. 2016. Karjalankieliset verkkosivut virtuaalisena kielimaisemana [Developing websites in the Karelian language as part of virtual linguistic landscape]. Lähivõrdlusi. Lähivertailuja 26. 282–310. https://doi.org/10.5128/LV26.09.Search in Google Scholar

Novak, Kristina. 2020. Die Entwicklung der Sprachpolitik in Kroatien und deren Auswirkung auf die Translation. Unpublished seminar paper on translation studies. Department of Translation Studies, University Graz, summer term 2020.Search in Google Scholar

Õispuu, Jaan. 1997. Puristisia ilmiötä elvytetyssä karjalan kirjakielessä [Puristic phenomena in the revitalised Karelian literary language]. In Leena Nissilä (ed.), Suomen kielen päivä [The day of the Finnish language], 90–97. Tallinn: Tallinna Pedagoogikaülikool.Search in Google Scholar

O’Rourke, Bernadette, Joan Pujolar & Fernando Ramallo. 2015. New speakers of minority languages: The challenging opportunity – Foreword. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 231. 1–20.10.1515/ijsl-2014-0029Search in Google Scholar

Pasanen, Päivi. 2018. Sanastotyön ohjaus erikoisalan käännöskurssilla [Supervising terminological work in a LSP-translation course]. MikaEL. Kääntämisen ja tulkkauksen tutkimuksen symposiumin verkkojulkaisu 11, 7−19 [MikaEL. Electronic Journal of the KäTu Symposium on Translation and Interpreting Studies]. https://www.sktl.fi/liitto/seminaarit/mikael-verkkojulkaisu/arkisto-archive/vol-11-2018/ (accessed 20 December 2020).10.61200/mikael.129387Search in Google Scholar

Sarhimaa, Anneli. 2016. Karelian in Finland. ELDIA case specific report (Studies in European Language Diversity 27). Mainz: Johannes-Gutenberg-Universität. https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/view/o:471733 (accessed 10 December 2020).Search in Google Scholar

Sarhimaa, Anneli. 2017. Vaietut ja vaiennetut. Karjalankieliset karjalaiset Suomessa [The silent and the silenced. Karelian-speaking Karelians in Finland] (Tietolipas 256). Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.Search in Google Scholar

Shei, Chris C.-C. 2005. Translation commentary: A happy medium between translation curriculum and EAP. System 33. 309–325.10.1016/j.system.2005.01.004Search in Google Scholar

Tavi, Susanna & Tavi Lauri. Forthcoming. Vocabulary-based classification and contact-induced formation of neologisms in two standard varieties of Karelian. Journal of Language Contact.10.1163/19552629-14030006Search in Google Scholar

Toury, Gideon. 1985. Aspects of translating into minority languages from the point of view of translation studies. Multilingua 4. 3–10.10.1515/mult.1985.4.1.3Search in Google Scholar

Wei, Li. 2013. Conceptual and methodological issues in bilingualism and multilingualism research. In Tej K. Bhatia & William C. Ritchie (eds.), The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism, 26–51, 2nd edn. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781118332382.ch2Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2021-01-18
Accepted: 2021-10-26
Published Online: 2022-03-11
Published in Print: 2022-03-28

© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. What is “Language Making”?
  3. Scholars and their metaphors: on Language Making in linguistics
  4. Language Making of Creoles in multilingual postcolonial societies
  5. New speakers and Language Making: conscious creation of a colloquial Basque register in the city of Bilbao
  6. Teachers as foreign Language Makers: on standard language ideology, authenticity and language expertise
  7. Translating into an endangered language: filling in lexical gaps as Language Making
  8. Varia
  9. Koreans in Paraguay: language, identity and (re)migration
https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2021-0019
Keywords for this article
endangered language; Karelian; Language Making; lexical gap; neologism; revitalisation; translation; translator training

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. What is “Language Making”?
  3. Scholars and their metaphors: on Language Making in linguistics
  4. Language Making of Creoles in multilingual postcolonial societies
  5. New speakers and Language Making: conscious creation of a colloquial Basque register in the city of Bilbao
  6. Teachers as foreign Language Makers: on standard language ideology, authenticity and language expertise
  7. Translating into an endangered language: filling in lexical gaps as Language Making
  8. Varia
  9. Koreans in Paraguay: language, identity and (re)migration
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 3.10.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijsl-2021-0019/html
Scroll to top button