Pore evolution and mechanical properties of carbon fiber laminates subjected to low-velocity impacts
-
Zulu Tang
,
Jialiang Chen
Abstract
In order to study the effect of impact loading on the porosity within carbon fiber laminates and the effect of porosity on performance under external loading, six different energy gradients (0 J, 6 J, 10 J, 15 J, 20 J, 25 J) were applied to impact the carbon fiber laminates, followed by tensile and compression experiments on the impacted laminates. Various characterization methods, including industrial CT, ultrasonic C-scan, metallographic microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and mercury intrusion porosimetry, were used to investigate the changes in porosity and their effects on mechanical properties. The study found that impact loading leads to the formation of new porosity between layers, and these pores connect through cracks and coalesce to form larger pores, ultimately resulting in delamination. Under tensile loading, cracks form near the interlaminar and intralaminar porosity, and propagate along the thickness direction and interlaminar direction, respectively, leading to a decrease in the mechanical properties of the laminate. Using ultrasonic A-scan technology, sound attenuation and sound impedance data for the impacted regions of the laminates were obtained, and mathematical models for sound attenuation, sound impedance, and porosity were established. The average errors of the models were 6.6 % and 5.5 %, respectively. Additionally, finite element simulations of the laminate’s impact and tensile experiments were conducted, and tensile strength values for the 0 J, 10 J, and 20 J samples were output. The simulation results showed an accuracy rate of 95.4 %, 97.2 %, and 95.2 %, respectively.
-
Research ethics: Not applicable.
-
Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individuals included in this study, or their legal guardians or wards.
-
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. Zulu Tang, Jialiang Chen and Yixing Luo designed the experiment and carried it. Hua Xue, Chenglong Lu and Chengxiong Yi probided the experiment instruments and directed the experiment. Jun Ding, Zhenglong Liu, Chao Yu and Chengji Deng directed the writing and revision of this manuscript.
-
Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.
-
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
-
Research funding: This work was supported by the Open Fund for The State Key Laboratory of Refractories and Metallurgy (G202407), the Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province (2023BAB106); the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52402034); the Science and Technology Innovation Team Foundation of Hubei Province (T2023001) and the Natural Science Foundation of Wuhan (2024040701010051).
-
Data availability: Not applicable.
References
1. Werken, V. D. N.; Tekinalp, H.; Khanbolouki, P.; Ozcan, S.; Willians, A.; Tehrani, M. Additively Manufactured Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Composites: State of the Art and Perspective. Additi. Manuf. 2020, 31, 100962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.100962.Search in Google Scholar
2. Liu, H. P.; Lei, W.; Tong, Z. M.; Guan, K. K.; Jia, Q. L.; Zhang, S. W.; Zhang, H. Enhanced Diffusion Kinetics of Li Ions in Double-Shell Hollow Carbon Fibers. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13 (21), 24604–24614. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c01222.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
3. Ouyang, S.; Li, Y. B.; Ouyang, D. G.; Li, S.; Xu, N. .; Xiang, R. F. Microstructural Evolution of Carbon Fibers by Silicon Vapor Deposition and its Effect on Mullite-Corundum Castables. Ceram. Int. 2021, 47 (6), 7824–7830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.11.128.Search in Google Scholar
4. Li, X. S.; Li, Y. B.; Li, S.; Wei, Z. P.; Lei, R. F. Preparation of High‐Strength Lightweight Alumina with Plant‐Derived Pore Using Corn Stalk as Pore‐Forming Agent. Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 2020, 17 (5), 2465–2472. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijac.13580.Search in Google Scholar
5. Li, M. H.; Li, Y. B.; Ouyang, D. G.; Chen, R. Y.; Li, S. The Impact of Alumina Bubble Particle Size on the Microstructure and Physical Properties of Mullite Castables. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45 (2), 1928–1939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.10.085.Search in Google Scholar
6. Zhou, Z. M.; Li, Y. B.; Xiang, R. F.; Li, S. J.; Luo, H.; Wang, H. L. Fabrication of Basalt Cotton/Polytetrafluoroethylene (BC/PTFE) Composite Fiberboards with Excellent Dielectric Properties Over a Wide Frequency Range. J. Mater. Sci-Mater. El. 2021, 32, 12275–12282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-021-05856-z.Search in Google Scholar
7. Zhang, C.; Ling, Y. Q.; Zhang, X. Q.; Liang, M.; Zou, H. W. Ultra-Thin Carbon Fiber Reinforced Carbon Nanotubes Modified Epoxy Composites with Superior Mechanical and Electrical Properties for the Aerospace Field. Compos. Part. A-Appl. S. 2022, 163, 107197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2022.107197.Search in Google Scholar
8. Wang, H. L.; Li, S. J.; Li, Y. B.; Xiang, R. F.; Yuan, L.; Luo, H. Synthesizing Low-Cost, High-Corrosion-Resistant Refractory Kiln Furniture for the Calcination of Li-Ion Battery Cathode Materials. Ceram. Int. 2021, 47 (3), 4049–4054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.09.276.Search in Google Scholar
9. Palomba, G.; Epasto, G.; Crupi, V. Lightweight Sandwich Structures for Marine Applications: A Review. Mech. Adv. Mater. Struc. 2022, 29 (26), 4839–4864. https://doi.org/10.1080/15376494.2021.1941448.Search in Google Scholar
10. Shirinbayan, M.; Feki, I.; Nouira, S.; Bi, R. T.; Maeso, J. B.; Thomas, C.; Fitoussi, J. Multi‐Scale Damage Analysis of Filament‐Wound Carbon Fiber‐Reinforced Epoxy Composites for Hydrogen Storage Tanks Under High Strain Rates. Polym. Compos. 2025, 46 (6), 5128–5139. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.29273.Search in Google Scholar
11. Vita, A.; Castorani, V.; Germani, M.; Marconi, M. Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Low-pressure RTM, Compression RTM and High-Pressure RTM Manufacturing Processes to Produce CFRP Car Hoods. Procedia. Cirp. 2019, 80, 352–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2019.01.109.Search in Google Scholar
12. Fang, Y. W.; Xiang, Y.; Fang, Z. Impact Behaviour of Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Cables with Protective Sheaths. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 450, 138599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.138599.Search in Google Scholar
13. Dai, Y. J.; Li, Y. W.; Xu, X. F.; Zhu, Q. Y.; Yan, W.; Jin, S. L.; Harmuth, H. Fracture Behaviour of Magnesia Refractory Materials in Tension with the Brazilian Test. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2019, 39 (16), 5433–5441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2019.07.026.Search in Google Scholar
14. Shirinbayan, M.; Rizi, H. B.; Abbasnezhad, N.; Tcharkhtchi, A.; Fitoussi, J. Tension, Compression, and Shear Behavior of Advanced Sheet Molding Compound (A-SMC): Multi-Scale Damage Analysis and Strain Rate Effect. Compos. Part. B-Eng. 2021, 225, 109287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.109287.Search in Google Scholar
15. Lamri, A.; Shirinbayan, M.; Pereira, M.; Truffault, L.; Fitoussi, J.; Lamouri, S.; Bakir, F.; Tcharkhtchi, A. Effects of Strain Rate and Temperature on the Mechanical Behavior of High‐Density Polyethylene. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020, 137 (23), 48778; https://doi.org/10.1002/app.48778.Search in Google Scholar
16. Zhang, M. H.; Cao, Z. Q.; Gong, X. L.; Hu, Q.; Yu, M. C.; Huo, L. B. A Novel Impact Approach Based on Electromagnetic Loading Technology: A Case Study on CFRP/Al Riveted Structures. Eng. Fract. Mech. 2024, 311, 110555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2024.110555.Search in Google Scholar
17. Shirinbayan, M.; Fitoussi, J.; Kheradmand, F.; Montazeri, A.; Zuo, P.; Techarkhtchi, A. Coupling Effect of Strain Rate and Temperature on Tensile Damage Mechanism of Polyphenylene Sulfide Reinforced by Glass Fiber (PPS/GF30). J. Thermoplastic. Compos. Mater. 2022, 35 (11), 1994–2008. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892705720944229.Search in Google Scholar
18. Li, X. M.; Liang, B.; Liu, P.; Cheng, H.; Cao, S. P.; Zhang, K. F. Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Low-Velocity Impact Damage of CFRP Laminates with Rubber Protective Layer. Compo. Struct. 2022, 300, 116152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.116152.Search in Google Scholar
19. Lan, Z. F.; Saito, O.; Yu, F. M.; Okabe, Y. Impact Damage Detection in Woven CFRP Laminates Based on a Local Defect Resonance Technique with Laser Ultrasonics. Mech. Syst. Signal. Pr. 2024, 207, 110929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2023.110929.Search in Google Scholar
20. Dai, Y. J.; Harmuth, H.; Jin, S. L.; Gruber, D.; Li, Y. W. R-Curves Determination of Ordinary Refractory Ceramics Assisted by Digital Image Correlation Method. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2020, 40 (13), 4655–4663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2020.05.047.Search in Google Scholar
21. Fakhreddini-Najafabadi, S.; Torabi, M.; Taheri-Behrooz, F. Nanoclay Role in Improving Compression After Impact Strength of the Carbon/Epoxy Composites. J. Compos. Mater. 2023, 57 (17), 2717–2737. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219983231176238.Search in Google Scholar
22. Fakhreddini-Najafabadi, S.; Torabi, M.; Taheri-Behrooz, F. An Experimental Investigation on the Low-Velocity Impact Performance of the CFRP Filled with Nanoclay. Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 2021, 116, 106858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2021.106858.Search in Google Scholar
23. Taheri-Behrooz, F.; Torabia, M. Low-Velocity Impact Performance of the Carbon/Epoxy Plates Exposed to the Cyclic Temperature. Steel. Compos. Struct 2023, 48 (3), 305. https://doi.org/10.12989/scs.2023.48.3.305.Search in Google Scholar
24. Swanson, S. R. Scaling of Impact Damage in Fiber Composites from Laboratory Specimens to Structures. Compo. Struct. 1993, 25 (1–4), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/0263-8223(93)90171-L.Search in Google Scholar
25. Rajagurunathan, M.; Prakash, R. V. Numerical Investigation of the Low Velocity Impact Behavior of CFRP Laminates. Procedia. Struct. Integr. 2024, 60, 517–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prostr.2024.05.071.Search in Google Scholar
26. Shukla, B.; Naresh, L.; Raju, G. Experimental Studies of CFRP Laminates Under Repetitive Low-Velocity Impact Loading. Mater. Today. Proc. 2024, 108, 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.11.155.Search in Google Scholar
27. Wu, M. H.; Huang, A.; Yang, S.; Gu, H. Z.; Fu, L. P.; Li, G. Q.; Dong, H. Corrosion Mechanism of Al2O3-SiC-C Refractory by SiO2-MgO-Based Slag. Ceram. Int. 2020, 46 (18), 28262–28267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.07.327.Search in Google Scholar
28. Scott, A. E.; Sinclair, I.; Spearing, S. M.; Mavrogordato, M. N.; Hepples, W. Influence of Voids on Damage Mechanisms in Carbon/Epoxy Composites Determined via High Resolution Computed Tomography. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2014, 90, 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2013.11.004.Search in Google Scholar
29. Choi, H. Y.; Wang, H. S.; Chang, F. K. Effect of Laminate Configuration and Impactor’s Mass on the Initial Impact Damage of Graphite/Epoxy Composite Plates due to Line-Loading Impact. J. Compos. Mater. 1992, 26 (6), 804–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/002199839202600603.Search in Google Scholar
30. Ma, Y. Z.; Sang, S. B.; Wan, Z. F.; Li, Y. W.; Zhu, T. B. Preparation of Mullite Refractories with Low Thermal Conductivity and High Strength. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2023, 39 (7), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.1080/02670836.2022.2139901.Search in Google Scholar
31. Du, R. Q.; Fu, L. P.; Gu, H. Z.; Huang, A.; Yang, S.; Chen, D. Effect of Zirconia Sol on the Microstructure and Properties of Al2O3-Based Ceramic Fabricated from Natural Bauxite. Ceram. Int. 2022, 48 (9), 12954–12961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.01.168.Search in Google Scholar
32. Fu, L. P.; Gu, H. Z.; Zhang, M. J.; Huang, A.; Fan, C. L.; Ni, H. W. Role of Liquid Phase Amounts in the Pore Evolution of Lightweight Bauxite: Experimental and Thermal Simulation Studies. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45 (5), 6216–6222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.12.099.Search in Google Scholar
33. Zhou, Q. R.; Li, Y. B.; Xiang, R. F.; Li, S. J.; Ouyang, S.; Li, X. Ultra-Low-Density Calcium Hexaaluminate Foams Prepared by Sintering of Thermo-Foamed Alumina-Calcium Carbonate Powder Dispersions in Molten Sucrose. J. Aust. Ceram. Soc. 2020, 56, 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41779-019-00445-0.Search in Google Scholar
34. Wang, Q. H.; Li, Y. B.; Li, S. J.; Xiang, R. F.; Xu, N. .; Ouyang, S. Effects of Critical Particle Size on Properties and Microstructure of Porous Purging Materials. Mater. Lett. 2017, 197, 48–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2017.03.129.Search in Google Scholar
35. Liu, Y.; Li, X. C.; Chen, P. A.; Zhu, B. Q. Optimization of Matrix Pore Structure and its Effects on Physicochemical Properties of Corundum Castables. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45 (17), 22110–22119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.07.228.Search in Google Scholar
36. Dilonardo, E.; Nacucchi, M.; Pascalis, F. D.; Zarrelli, M.; Giannini, C. High Resolution X-ray Computed Tomography: A Versatile Non-Destructive Tool to Characterize CFRP-Based Aircraft Composite Elements. Compo. Sci. Technol. 2020, 192, 108093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2020.108093.Search in Google Scholar
37. Peng, Y. F.; Li, M. J.; Yang, X. J. Void Formation and Suppression in CFRP Laminate Using Newly Designed Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted RTM Technique. Compo. Struct. 2024, 329, 117796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2023.117796.Search in Google Scholar
38. Choi, H. Y.; Wang, H. S.; Chang, F. K. A New Approach Toward Understanding Damage Mechanisms and Mechanics of Laminated Composites due to Low-Velocity Impact: Part II-Analysis. J. Compos. Mater. 1991, 25 (8), 1012–1038. https://doi.org/10.1177/002199839102500804.Search in Google Scholar
39. Mehdikhani, M.; Gorbatikh, L.; Verpoest, I.; Lomov, S. Voids in Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: A Review on their Formation, Characteristics, and Effects on Mechanical Performance. J. Compos. Mater. 2019, 53 (12), 1579–1669. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998318772152.Search in Google Scholar
40. Ding, J.; Wang, J. T.; Yang, H.; Liu, Z. L.; Yu, C.; Li, X. C.; Deng, C.; Zhu, H. Improvement of Mechanical Properties of Composites with Surface Modified B4C for Precision Machining. Materials 2023, 16 (2), 882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020882.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
41. Karabutov, A. A.; Podymova, N. B. Quantitative Analysis of the Influence of Voids and Delaminations on Acoustic Attenuation in CFRP Composites by the Laser-Ultrasonic Spectroscopy Method. Compos. Part. B-Eng. 2014, 56, 238–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2013.08.040.Search in Google Scholar
42. Schey, M.; Beke, T.; Owens, K.; George, A.; Pineda, E.; Stapleton, S. Effects of Debulking on the Fiber Microstructure and Void Distribution in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2023, 165, 107364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2022.107364.Search in Google Scholar
43. Zhuang, X. J.; Ma, J. S.; Liu, F.; Dan, Y.; Huang, Y.; Jiang, L. Characterization of Hydrothermal Aging Induced Voids in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composites Using Micro-Computed Tomography. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2022, 206, 110198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.110198.Search in Google Scholar
44. Liebig, W. V.; Viets, C.; Schulte, K.; Fiedler, B. Influence of Voids on the Compressive Failure Behaviour of Fibre-Reinforced Composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2015, 117, 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2015.06.020.Search in Google Scholar
45. Naderi, M.; Iyyer, . Micromechanical Analysis of Damage Mechanisms Under Tension of 0–90° thin-ply Composite Laminates. Compos. Struct. 2020, 234, 111659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2019.111659.Search in Google Scholar
46. Bouvet, C.; Rivallant, S.; Barrau, J. J. Low Velocity Impact Modeling in Composite Laminates Capturing Permanent Indentation. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2012, 72 (16), 1977–1988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2012.08.019.Search in Google Scholar
47. Sellitto, A.; Saputo, S.; Caprio, F. D.; Riccio, A.; Russo, A.; Acanfora, V. Numerical–Experimental Correlation of Impact-Induced Damages in Cfrp Laminates. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9 (11), 2372. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112372.Search in Google Scholar
48. Zhou, J. J.; Wen, P. H.; Wang, S. Finite Element Analysis of a Modified Progressive Damage Model for Composite Laminates Under Low-Velocity Impact. Compos. Struct. 2019, 225, 111113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2019.111113.Search in Google Scholar
49. Zhao, L. B.; Qin, T. L.; Zhang, J. Y.; Shenoi, R. A. Modified Maximum Stress Failure Criterion for Composite π Joints. J. Compo. Mater. 2013, 47 (23), 2995–3008. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998312460713.Search in Google Scholar
50. Christensen, R. M. Tensor Transformations and Failure Criteria for the Analysis of Fiber Composite Materials. J. Compo. Mater. 1988, 22 (9), 874–897. https://doi.org/10.1177/002199838802200906.Search in Google Scholar
51. Cantwell, W. J.; Morton, J. Geometrical Effects in the Low Velocity Impact Response of CFRP. Compos. Struct. 1989, 12 (1), 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0263-8223(89)90043-3.Search in Google Scholar
52. Panbarasu, K.; Ranganath, V. R.; Prakash, R. V. An Experimental Study on Impact Behavior of Quasi-Isotropic CFRP Laminates. Mater. Today: Proc. 2021, 44, 289–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.09.467.Search in Google Scholar
53. Stone, D. E. W.; Clarke, B. Ultrasonic Attenuation as a Measure of Void Content in Carbon-Fibre Reinforced Plastics. Non-Destr. Test 1975, 8 (3), 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-1021(75)90023-7.Search in Google Scholar
54. Dai, Y. J.; Jin, S. L.; Zhou, R.; Li, Y. W.; Harmuth, H.; Tschegg, E. K. Mixed-Mode Fracture Behaviour of Refractories with Asymmetric Wedge Splitting Test. Part II: Experimental Case Study. Ceram. Int. 2022, 48 (14), 19757–19766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.03.244.Search in Google Scholar
55. Liu, H.; Yang, Y. F.; Wang, Z. F.; Wang, X. T.; Ma, Y. Enhanced Mechanical and Thermal Insulation Properties of Mullite-Based Thermal Insulation Materials by Heat Treatment in Reducing Atmosphere. J. Aust. Ceram. Soc. 2021, 57, 525–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41779-020-00551-4.Search in Google Scholar
56. Dai, Y. J.; Li, Y. W.; Xu, X. F.; Zhu, Q. Y.; Yin, Y. C.; Ge, S.; Huang, A.; Pan, L. Characterization of Tensile Failure Behaviour of Magnesia Refractory Materials by a Modified Dog-Bone Shape Direct Tensile Method and Splitting Tests. Ceram. Int. 2020, 46 (5), 6517–6525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.11.133.Search in Google Scholar
57. Liu, W. J.; Liao, .; Nath, M.; Ji, Z. X.; Dai, Y. J.; Pan, L. P.; Li, Y.; Jastrzębska, I.; Szczerba, J. Effects of Curing Time on the Pore Structure Evolution and Fracture Behavior of CAC Bonded Alumina-Spinel Castables. Ceram. Int. 2022, 48 (17), 25000–25010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.05.153.Search in Google Scholar
58. Xu, X. F.; Li, Y. W.; Dai, Y. J.; Zhu, T. B.; Pan, L. P.; Szczerba, J. Influence of Graphite Content on Fracture Behavior of MgO-C Refractories Based on Wedge Splitting Test with Digital Image Correlation Method and Acoustic Emission. Ceram. Int. 2021, 47 (9), 12742–12752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.01.134.Search in Google Scholar
59. Im, K. H.; Cha, C. S.; Kim, S. K.; Yang, I. Y. Effects of Temperature on Impact Damages in CFRP Composite Laminates. Compos. Part. B-Eng 2001, 32 (8), 669–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-8368(01)00046-4.Search in Google Scholar
60. Zhou, J.; Liao, B.; Shi, Y.; Zuo, Y.; Tuo, H.; Jia, L. Low-Velocity Impact Behavior and Residual Tensile Strength of CFRP Laminates. Compos. Part. B-Eng. 2019, 161, 300–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.10.090.Search in Google Scholar
61. Haider, A. L. Z.; Zhao, X. L.; Al-Mihaidi, R. Mechanical Behaviour of Normal Modulus Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) and Epoxy Under Impact Tensile Loads. Procedia. Eng. 2011, 10, 2453–2458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.04.404.Search in Google Scholar
62. Cartié, D. D. R.; Irving, P. E. Effect of Resin and Fibre Properties on Impact and Compression After Impact Performance of CFRP. Compos. Part A-Appl. S 2002, 33 (4), 483–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-835X(01)00141-5.Search in Google Scholar
63. Rivallant, S.; Bouvet, C.; Abi Abdallah, E.; Broll, B.; Barrau, J. J. Experimental Analysis of CFRP Laminates Subjected to Compression After Impact: The Role of Impact-Induced Cracks in Failure. Compos. Struct. 2014, 111, 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2013.12.012.Search in Google Scholar
64. Lee, J. F.; Soutis, C. Experimental Investigation on the Behaviour of CFRP Laminated Composites Under Impact and Compression After Impact (CAI). EKC2008 Proc. EU-Korea Conf. Sci. Technol. 2008, 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-85190-5_29.Search in Google Scholar
65. Amirashjaee-Asalemi, K.; Taheri-Behrooz, F.; Fakhreddini-Najafabadi, S. Investigation of the Low-Velocity Impact and Compression After Impact Performance of CFRPs. J. Eng. Mech 2023, 149 (9), 04023066. https://doi.org/10.1061/JENMDT.EMENG-6932.Search in Google Scholar
66. Stamopoulos, A. G.; Tserpes, K. I.; Pantelakis, S. G. Multiscale Finite Element Prediction of Shear and Flexural Properties of Porous CFRP Laminates Utilizing X-ray CT Data. Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 2018, 97, 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2017.04.020.Search in Google Scholar
67. Kupsch, A.; Trappe, V.; Müller, B. R.; Bruno, G. Evolution of CFRP Stress Cracks Observed by in-situ X-ray Refractive Imaging. IOP. Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020, 942 (1), 012035. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/942/1/012035.Search in Google Scholar
68. Mohammadpour, M.; Taheri-Behrooz, F. Compressive and Flexural Responses of Auxetic Sandwich Panels with Modified re-Entrant Honeycomb Cores. J. Sandw. Struct. Mater. 2024, 26 (7), 1165–1181. https://doi.org/10.1177/10996362241275532.Search in Google Scholar
69. Ghasemi, M.; Mohammadpour, M.; Taheri‐Behrooz, F. Energy Absorption and Low-Velocity Impact Responses of the Sandwich Panels with Lattice Truss Core. J. Sandw. Struct. Mater. 2024, 26 (6), 793–811. https://doi.org/10.1177/10996362241238272.Search in Google Scholar
70. Xie, K.; Li, M.; Shen, J. Dynamic Behavior and Energy Absorption of Typical Porous Materials Under Impacts. Mater 2024, 17 (20), 5035. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17205035.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
71. Hapke, J.; Gehrig, F.; Huber, N.; Schulte, K.; Lilleodden, E. T. Compressive Failure of UD-CFRP Containing Void Defects: in Situ SEM Microanalysis. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2011, 71 (9), 1242–1249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2011.04.009.Search in Google Scholar
72. Shikhmanter, L.; Cina, B.; Eldror, I. Fractography of CFRP Composites Damaged by Impact and Subsequently Loaded Statically to Failure. Compos 1995, 26 (2), 154–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-4361(95)90416-w.Search in Google Scholar
© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
