Theobroma Cacao pod husk extract mediated gold nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization and evaluation of their cytotoxicity activity using brine shrimp hatching assay
-
Romesa Soomro
,
Puteri Nurhazeera Azaham
Abstract
The advancement of nanotechnology has led to the exploration of environmentally sustainable methodologies for nanoparticle synthesis, particularly emphasizing the significance of green chemistry. Among these, the green synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using natural extracts has gained attention with respect to their potential biomedical applications. This study presents a novel method for the green synthesis of AuNPs employing CPH extract, which is sustainable and environmental-friendly. The synthesized CPH–AuNPs exhibited remarkable stability as evident from different characterization techniques, including UV–visible spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Transmission Electron Microscopy. These analyses revealed that the CPH–AuNPs were predominantly homogeneous, spherical shaped with an average particle size and crystallite size of 16 nm and 17 nm, respectively. UV–Vis spectroscopy confirmed successful synthesis of CPH–AuNPs, with absorption peak stabilizing at 533 nm. TEM technique further confirmed the long–term stability feature of the synthesized nanoparticles. Additionally, the biosafety of CPH–AuNPs assessed using brine shrimp (Artemia salina) hatching assay, revealed 47 % hatching rate at the least concentration of 62.5 µg mL−1, thereby underscoring their high biocompatibility. This research paves the way for the development of novel AuNPs synthesized using isolated polyphenols from CPH extract, with promising implications for their application in the biomedical field.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Malaysian Cocoa Board for providing the cocoa pod husk (CPH) used in this study. This research was financially supported by the Malaysia–Singapore L’Oréal–UNESCO Fellowship for Women in Science (FWIS) 2023 and the Kurita Water and Environment Foundation Grant (Grant Number 23Pmy305). The authors also extend their sincere thanks to Universiti Putra Malaysia for the research facilities and technical assistance, which were instrumental to the successful completion of this work.
-
Research ethics: Not applicable.
-
Informed consent: Not applicable.
-
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
-
Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: Improve language, or combine or enhance existing figures.
-
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
-
Research funding: The Malaysia–Singapore L’Oréal–UNESCO Fellowship for Women in Science (FWIS) 2023 and the Kurita Water and Environment Foundation Grant (Grant Number 23Pmy305).
-
Data availability: Data available on request from the authors.
References
1. Alexis, F.; Pridgen, E.; Molnar, L. K.; Farokhzad, O. C. Factors Affecting the Clearance and Biodistribution of Polymeric Nanoparticles. Mol. Pharmaceutics 2008, 5 (4), 505–515. https://doi.org/10.1021/mp800051m.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
2. Li, S.-D.; Huang, L. Pharmacokinetics and Biodistribution of Nanoparticles. Mol. Pharmaceutics 2008, 5 (4), 496–504. https://doi.org/10.1021/mp800049w.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
3. Gittins, D. I.; Bethell, D.; Schiffrin, D. J.; Nichols, R. J. A Nanometre-Scale Electronic Switch Consisting of a Metal Cluster and Redox-Addressable Groups. Nature 2000, 408, 67–69. https://doi.org/10.1038/35040522.Search in Google Scholar
4. Sathishkumar, M.; Sneha, K.; Yun, Y. S. Immobilization of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Curcuma longa Tuber Powder and Extract on Cotton Cloth for Bactericidal Activity. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101 (20), 7958–7965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.05.051.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
5. Elegbede, J. A.; Lateef, A. Green Synthesis of Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), and Silver–Gold (Ag–Au) Alloy Nanoparticles: a Review on Recent Advances, Trends, and Biomedical Applications. In Nanotechnology and Nanomaterial Applications in Food, Health, and Biomedical Sciences; Apple Academic Press: New York, 2019; pp. 3–89.10.1201/9780429425660-1Search in Google Scholar
6. Naeem, G. A.; Jaloot, A. S.; Owaid, M. N.; Muslim, R. F. Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles from Coprinus comatus, Agaricaceae, and the Effect of Ultraviolet Irradiation on their Characteristics. Walailak J. Sci. Technol. 2021, 18 (8). https://doi.org/10.48048/wjst.2021.9396.Search in Google Scholar
7. O’Brien, S.; Brus, L.; Murray, C. B. Synthesis of Monodisperse Nanoparticles of Barium Titanate: toward a Generalized Strategy of Oxide Nanoparticle Synthesis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123 (48), 12085–12086. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja011414a.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
8. Iravani, S. Green Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Using Plants. Green Chem. 2011, 13, 2638–2650. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1GC15386B.Search in Google Scholar
9. Baskaralingam, V.; Sargunar, C. G.; Lin, Y. C.; Chen, J. C. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Through Calotropis gigantea Leaf Extracts and Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity Against Vibrio alginolyticus. Nanotechnol. Dev. 2012, 2 (1), e3. https://doi.org/10.4081/nd.2012.e3.Search in Google Scholar
10. Daisy, P.; Saipriya, K. Biochemical Analysis of Cassia fistula Aqueous Extract and Phytochemically Synthesized Gold Nanoparticles as Hypoglycemic Treatment for Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Nanomed. 2012, 7, 1189–1201. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S23603.Search in Google Scholar
11. Bernardo, W. L. de C.; Boriollo, M. F. G.; Tonon, C. C.; da Silva, J. J.; Oliveira, M. C.; de Moraes, F. C.; Spolidorio, D. M. P. Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Syzygium cumini Leaves and their Potential Effects on Odontogenic Pathogens and Biofilms. Front. Microbiol. 2022, 13, 995521. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.995521Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
12. Rabeea, M. A.; Owaid, M. N.; Aziz, A. A.; Jameel, M. S.; Dheyab, M. A. Mycosynthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using the Extract of Flammulina velutipes, Physalacriaceae, and their Efficacy for Decolorization of Methylene Blue. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8 (3), 103841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.103841.Search in Google Scholar
13. Abdul-Hadi, S. Y.; Owaid, M. N.; Rabeea, M. A.; Abdul Aziz, A.; Jameel, M. S. Rapid Mycosynthesis and Characterization of Phenols-Capped Crystal Gold Nanoparticles from Ganoderma applanatum, Ganodermataceae. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 2020, 27, 101683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2020.101683.Search in Google Scholar
14. Muniyappan, N.; Nagarajan, N. S. Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Curcuma pseudomontana Essential Oil, its Biological Activity and Cytotoxicity Against Human Ductal Breast Carcinoma Cells T47D. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2014, 2 (4), 2037–2044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2014.03.004.Search in Google Scholar
15. Ren, X.; Song, Y.; Liu, A.; Zhang, J.; Yang, P.; Zhang, J.; An, M. Experimental and Theoretical Studies of DMH as a Complexing Agent for a Cyanide-free Gold Electroplating Electrolyte. RSC Adv. 2015, 5, 64997–65004. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA13140E.Search in Google Scholar
16. Azizah, A. H.; Nik Ruslawati, N. M.; Swee Tee, T. Extraction and Characterization of Antioxidant from Cocoa Pod Husk By-Products. Food Chem. 1999, 64 (2), 199–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00121-6.Search in Google Scholar
17. El-Shekeil, Y. A.; Sapuan, S. M.; Algrafi, M. W. Effect of Fiber Loading on Mechanical and Morphological Properties of Cocoa Pod Husk Fibers Reinforced Thermoplastic Polyurethane Composites. Mater. Des. 2014, 64, 330–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.07.034.Search in Google Scholar
18. Rajabi, S.; Ramazani, A.; Hamidi, M.; Naji, T. Artemia salina as a Model Organism in Toxicity Assessment of Nanoparticles. DARU J. Pharm. Sci. 2015, 23 (1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40199-015-0105-x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
19. Bankar, A.; Joshi, B.; Kumar, A. R.; Zinjarde, S. Banana Peel Extract Mediated Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2010, 80 (1), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.05.029.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
20. Arvindganth, R.; Kathiravan, G. Biogenic Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticle from Enicostema axillare and their in Vitro Cytotoxicity Study Against MCF-7 Cell Line. Bionanoscience 2019, 9 (4), 839–847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-019-00656-6Search in Google Scholar
21. Noruzi, M.; Zare, D.; Khoshnevisan, K.; Davoodi, D. Rapid Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Rosa hybrida Petal Extract at Room Temperature. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2011, 79 (5), 1461–1465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2011.05.001.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
22. Hamelian, M.; Varmira, K.; Veisi, H. Green Synthesis and Characterizations of Gold Nanoparticles Using Thyme and Survey Cytotoxic Effect, Antibacterial and Antioxidant Potential. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2018, 184, 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2018.05.016.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
23. Masarovičová, E.; Kráľová, K. Metal Nanoparticles and Plants/Nanocząstki Metaliczne I Rośliny. Ecol. Chem. Eng. S 2013, 20 (1), 9–22. https://doi.org/10.2478/eces-2013-0001pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov+3pubs.acs.org+3sciencedirect.com+3.10.2478/eces-2013-0001Search in Google Scholar
24. Kumar, I.; Mondal, M.; Meyappan, V.; Sakthivel, N. Green One-Pot Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Sansevieria roxburghiana Leaf Extract for the Catalytic Degradation of Toxic Organic Pollutants. Mater. Res. Bull. 2019, 117, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2019.04.029.Search in Google Scholar
25. Xin Lee, K.; Shameli, K.; Miyake, M.; Kuwano, N.; Ahmad Khairudin, N. B.; Mohamad, S. E.; Yew, Y. P. Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Extract of Garcinia mangostana Fruit Peels. J. Nanomater. 2016, 2016, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8489094.Search in Google Scholar
26. Kumar, S. V.; Ganesan, S. Preparation and Characterization of Gold Nanoparticles with Different Capping Agents. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. 2011, 3 (1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/19430892.2011.574538.Search in Google Scholar
27. Chellapandian, C.; Ramkumar, B.; Puja, P.; Shanmuganathan, R.; Pugazhendhi, A.; Kumar, P. Gold Nanoparticles Using Red Seaweed Gracilaria Verrucosa: Green Synthesis, Characterization and Biocompatibility Studies. Process Biochem. 2019, 80, 58–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2019.02.009Search in Google Scholar
28. Manikandakrishnan, M.; Palanisamy, S.; Vinosha, M.; Kalanjiaraja, B.; Mohandoss, S.; Manikandan, R.; Tabarsa, M.; You, S.; Prabhu, N. M. Facile Green Route Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Caulerpa racemosa for Biomedical Applications. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 2019, 54, 101345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2019.101345.Search in Google Scholar
© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
