Being Mild and Gentle, Sincere and Broadminded and Chinese Aesthetic Psychology

1 The History and Aesthetic Value of the Concept of “Being Mild and Gentle, Sincere and Broadminded”

The term “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” is first found in the chapter “Explanation of the Six Arts” of The Book of Rites. The chapter “Explanation of the Six Arts” summarizes the six classics briefly. Zhuangzi (庄子 ca. 369 B.C.E.–ca. 286 B.C.E) was the first to coin the term of the six classics and briefly summarize them. On this basis, this chapter goes further to emphasize the role of the classics in the education of the people:

Confucius said, “When you come to a country, you can know about its education. If the people there are mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, this is because they have studied The Book of Songs. If they understand the current affairs as well as historical issues, this is because they have studied The Book of History. If they are broadminded, easygoing, and kindhearted, that is the result of their study of The Book of Music. If they are calm, quiet, insightful, and subtle, that is the result of their study of The Book of Changes. If they are humble, thrift, dignified, sincere, and respectful, that is the result of their study of The Book of Rites. If they are good at rhetoric and narration, that is the result of their study of The Spring and Autumn Annals. Whoever is obsessed with The Book of Songs may be foolish. Whoever delves too deep into The Book of History tends to exaggerate. Whoever excessively studies The Book of Music tends to be extravagant and wasteful. Whoever studies The Book of Changes too much may become superstitious. Whoever has learned too much from The Book of Rites may become tedious. Whoever has learned too much from The Spring and Autumn Annals tends to make ungrounded comments. If we are mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded but not stupid, then we have truly learned The Book of Songs well. If we are knowledgeable about both current and ancient matters but do not exaggerate, we have truly learned The Book of History well. If we are broad-minded, easygoing, and kindhearted but not extravagant, we have truly learned The Book of Music well. If we are calm, quiet, insightful, and subtle but not superstitious, we have truly learned The Book of Changes well. If we are dignified and respectful but not tedious, we have truly learned The Book of Rites well. If we are good at rhetoric and narration and do not make comments without good reason, then we have truly learned The Spring and Autumn Annals well.” (Ruan, 2009, p. 3493)

The concept of “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” is generally believed to refer to both external appearance and internal temperament. According to Confucian aesthetics, a person’s cultivation includes both external appearance and internal disposition, i.e., both form and content, and this personal cultivation is, of course, reflected on aesthetic style. The famous classics scholar Kong Yingda (孔颖达 574–648) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) explained “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” in Commentaries on The Book of Rites (《礼记正义》) as follows: “Mild means warm and kind in complexion. Gentle refers to the softness of temperament. The Book of Songs criticizes indirectly and euphemistically, instead of censuring specific issues. Therefore, being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded is what The Book of Songs teaches.” (Ruan, 2009, p. 3493) He further explained “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded but not foolish” as follows: “This classical passage uses the gist of The Book of Songs to educate the people. Although it emphasizes the need to be ‘mild and gentle,’ it holds that the people should also be taught to follow the rites. To make the people gentle and honest, but not doltish, it is essential (for the ruler) to be well versed in The Book of Songs and able to use it to educate the people. This is why it is said, ‘It is important to be well versed in The Book of Songs.’” (Ruan, 2009, p. 3493) According to Kong Yingda, mild describes people’s appearance and gentle refers to their temperament. So the two concepts integrate the external and the internal. Being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded results from the study of The Book of Songs.

However, being excessively mild and gentle is equivalent to being foolish, since Kong Yingda explained the statement “Whoever is obsessed with The Book of Songs is foolish” as follows: “The Book of Songs advocates the need to be mild and gentle, but whoever can’t exercise moderation is foolish.” According to Confucianism, excess is just as bad as not enough. If one is too mild, gentle, and dull, it will be counterproductive and make people become pedantic, and those who are wise will only seek harmony. If one is mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded but does not go so far as to become foolish, this is because one has a deep understanding of The Book of Songs, and this is also the ideal state of a mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded personality. Confucius’ doctrine of the mean can equally be applied to the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded in The Book of Songs. In a sense, the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded in The Book of Songs is an elaboration of Confucius’ doctrine of the mean and an idea based on The Book of Songs that Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty introduced into the teaching of The Book of Songs.

As far as personality is concerned, the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded cultivates “the persistent implementation of the doctrine of the mean” as a virtue and make it a conscious state of personality. According to Confucianism, the sages have advocated this idea of character throughout the ages. In the chapter “Shun Dian” of the legendary classic The Book of History (《尚书 · 舜典》), it is written: “The emperor Shun (舜) said: ‘Kui (夔), I appoint you to be in charge of music, and to teach the sons of the nobility, so that they may be upright and gentle, generous and discerning in their dealings, firm but not violent, and simple but not arrogant in their attitudes. Poetry is used to express thoughts and feelings, and songs are sung to express such thoughts and feelings. The songs should be consistent with the thoughts and feelings, and should also be in harmony with the rhythm. The eight types of musical instruments should be able to play in harmony and should not be used in a disorderly manner, so that both deities and humans will feel happy and harmonious when they hear them.’” Kong Yingda explained “upright and gentle” by saying, “teach the sons of the nobility to be upright and gentle, magnanimous and dignified” (Ruan, 2009, p. 276). This refers to the humanistic character achieved by the teaching of The Book of Music.

Confucianism emphasizes that the inner world of a person must be perceived in his or her outer appearance; therefore, gentle character is also manifested through courteous manners and dress. In The Book of Rites, this idea recurs repeatedly, emphasizing that a gentleman should carry out his or her gentle and faithful character with dress and manners, in both rituals and in daily life, while consciously improving moral cultivation. However, during the period of 220–420, which includes the Three Kingdoms Wei, Shu, and Wu, the Eastern and Western Jin dynasties, the 16 States, the Southern and Northern Dynasties, these convoluted procedures were criticized, but were successively reaffirmed in the mainstream thinking and cultural traditions of later generations.

In the Confucian classics, the term “mild and gentle” is often used in reference to a generous and virtuous character. The chapter “The Doctrine of the Mean” in The Book of Rites praises it in a poem:

Great is the Dao (道, Path/Way) of the sage. It generously nourishes all things, rises to the height of heaven, and is full and magnificent. The 300 rituals and 3000 etiquettes can be implemented only after men of great virtue have come forth. Thus it is said that great Dao appears only in the man of the greatest virtue. Therefore, a man of virtue has great moral integrity, is diligent in learning, seeks to broaden and deepen his knowledge, is wise and follows the principle of the Mean, often reviews what he already knows and acquires new knowledge, and upholds the rituals and social norms in sincerity. Such a man is not arrogant in high position or disobedient in subordinate position.

The consistency between the bright ideal of life and political philosophy created the highest state of life and political ideals in ancient China, and also influenced the literary and artistic thoughts of the Pre-Qin period (before 221 B.C.E.) and the Han Dynasty. In his “On the Concept of Poetry Expressing Aspirations: Being Mild and Gentle, Sincere and Broadminded” (《诗言志辨 · 温柔敦厚》), Zhu Ziqing cited Guo Moruo’s (郭沫若 1895–1978) article entitled “On the Traditional Thought of the Western Zhou Bronze Inscriptions” (《周彝铭中之传统思想考》), to the effect that the idea of the Mean (中) can be traced back to the traditional concept of the Shang and Zhou dynasties (1600 B.C.E.–256 B.C.E.):

“The character de (德, virtue) first appeared in the texts of the Zhou Dynasty (1046 B.C.E.–256 B.C.E.), in which, ‘examining the heart/mind’ was regarded as virtue. Therefore, illustrious virtue derives from an illustrious heart. For people to have an illustrious heart, they should be modest, prudent, mild, pious, respectful, brave, and resolute. These fine moral qualities are the manifestations of inner virtue. The outer manifestations of virtue are offering sacrifices to ghosts and gods, remaining true to ancestral values, being honest and unaffected, staying loyal to friends and respectful to relatives, acting prudently, and refraining from seeking lust and pleasure.” Mr. Zhu further elaborates, “The distinction between the ruler and his ministers, the ‘Middle Way,’ (中道) ‘modesty and prudence,’ (谦冲) ‘gentleness and obedience,’ (荏染) ‘honesty and simplicity, filial piety and respect for relatives, respectfulness and prudence,’ (敦笃孝友，敬慎将事) are all included in the phrase ‘being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded.’ The culture of people in the Zhou Dynasty was inherited from the people of the Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.E.–1046 B.C.E.); all these ideas have a long history. In particular, the ‘Mean’ is the main idea” (Zhu, 1981. pp. 309–310). This passage points out the intellectual origin of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded.

In The Book of Songs, the term “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” is used to represent the aesthetic consciousness of literature. The lyricism of poetry, unlike explicit political and polemical writing, is not expressed by direct concepts, but by euphemisms and sighs, which are later called bixing (比兴) or analogical resonances. In his famous lecture on “Emotions Expressed in Chinese Rhymes,” (《中国韵文里头所表现的情感》) Liang Qichao (梁启超 1873–1929) summarized several different techniques of expression in ancient Chinese poetry. He stated that one such technique in The Book of Songs is called “echoing expression.” He cited five famous works from, including one called “Depression” (《诗经 · 柏舟》):

Like cypress boat

Mid-stream afloat,

I cannot sleep

In sorrow deep.

I won’t drink wine,

Nor roam nor pine.

Unlike the brass

Where images pass,

On brothers I

Cannot rely.

When I complain,

I meet disdain.

Have I not grown

Firm as a stone?

Am I as flat

As level mat?

My mind is strong:

I’ve done no wrong!

I’m full of spleen,

Hated by the mean;

I’m in distress,

Insulted no less;

Thinking at rest,

I beat my breast.

The sun and moon

Turn dim so soon.

I’m in distress

Like dirty dress.

Silent think I:

Why can’t I fly? (Xu, 2021, p. 43)

Liang Qichao sighed in appreciation: “‘Depression’ is about a woman who is oppressed by her family and cannot complain about her grievances. The poem is an expression of a very unfree emotion. Its expressions are different from the first three: they are in a state of hatred, and the emotions are vented in the throat and then swallowed back into the stomach. Therefore, the syllables are very short and intermittent. It would be wrong to write such emotions in the medium of a long ballad.” (Liang, 2018, p. 94) Liang Qichao pointed out with great insight that this method of expressing emotions in The Book of Songs reflects the aesthetic psychology of our nation, and that this method of expression, which is subtle and implicit, with tricolons, is unique to our nation. The term “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” is a perfect summary of this cultural mentality, for which he asserted:

Our poetry teaching is originally based on being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, which fully expresses the identity of the Han/Huaxia people (诸夏民族). The Book of Songs is the only model. The Songs of Chu (《楚辞》) were the work of a newly included ethnic group in the south. They had assimilated into the people of the Central Plains and used the cultural tools of the Xia (夏) to write about their emotions, incorporating the semi-mystical color of their inherent thought, thus adding a new realm to our literature (Liang, 2018, pp. 131–132).

Liang Qichao used the term “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” to summarize Chinese poetry teaching. This concept was actually given the connotation of Chinese poetic culture and psychology by later generations. The expressions commonly used in poetic discourse, such as enjoyment without indulgence, grief without excessive distress, gentle but beautiful, the sad and profound mood, and subtle and implicit, are all related to the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded. Liang Qichao emphasized that the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded in poetry teaching expresses the characteristics of the Chinese people, a highly astute observation.

This statement is also shared by contemporary scholars. In The Course of Beauty (《美的历程》), Li Zehou (李泽厚 1930–2021) cited the famous lines of the Ballads from the State Bei “Depression,” (《诗经 · 邶风 · 柏舟》) the Ballads from the State Wang “The Ruined Capital,” (《诗经 · 王风 · 黍离》) the Ballads from the State Wang “The Reed,” (《诗经 · 秦风 · 蒹葭》) and Minor Odes of the Kingdom “Home-coming After War” (《诗经 · 小雅 · 采薇》) and stated that:

It is difficult to know what were the specific events or contents that these poems chanted, sighed, and mourned about, but aren’t we still moved today by the sincere emotions of joy or sorrow they convey, the vivid and realistic artistic images they create, the linguistic form of singing sighs repeatedly and the depths of their delicate and lingering charm? They are different from the long narrative epics of other ancient peoples, since from the outset they inspire people with this short but deep lyrical art of practical reason. They embody the national characteristics of Chinese aesthetics in terms of specific works of art (Li, 2009, p. 58).

Although Li Zehou did not use the term “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” here, his analysis of how The Book of Songs has influenced affections and artistic imagery of later generations and is fully consistent with the connotations ensuing from the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded. He stated that, “They embody the national characteristics of Chinese aesthetics in terms of specific works of art.” (Li, 2009, p. 58) As this idea evolved, it came to accumulate the inner meaning of Chinese aesthetics and became the Chinese aesthetic psyche.

Of course, it was Confucius who laid the groundwork for understanding the intellectual implications of the term “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded.” Confucius appraised the ode “Cooing and Wooing” in The Book of Songs (《诗经·关雎》) as follows: “It is enjoyment without indulgence and grief without excessive distress.” (Liu, 1990, p. 116) In other words, the ode “Cooing and Wooing” expresses the enjoyment of love without being indulgent; it expresses the grief of unfulfilled love without excessive distress. It appropriately expresses the beauty of harmony. Confucius went on to argue that The Book of Songs embodies this beauty in accordance with propriety: “In The Book of Songs there are three hundred poems, but they can all be summed up in one sentence ‘have no depraved thoughts’” (Liu, 1990, p. 39). Confucius believed that only this beauty of harmony could cultivate an ideal personality and noble sentiments, and that all folk and vulgar music that did not conform to this aesthetic standard was abhorrent. Sima Qian (司马迁 ca.145–?）stated that: “The ancients passed down more than 3000 poems. Confucius ignored the duplicated ones and compiled a collection of those that could be used to teach rituals. The oldest poems were written to praise Qi (契) and Houji (后稷). Next were the poems that describe the prosperity of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, followed by the poems that criticize the moral decay of the kings Li (周幽王 ?–828 B.C.E.) and You (周幽王 ?–771 B.C.E.) of the Zhou Dynasty. In terms of order, the collection began with the relationship between husband and wife. So it is said that, ‘Cooing and Wooing’ (《诗经 · 国风 · 鹿鸣》) is the beginning of the section of the Ballads from the States; ‘To Guests’ (《诗经 · 小雅 · 鹿鸣》) is the beginning of the section of Court Hymn; ‘Heavens Decree’ (《诗经 · 大雅 · 文王》) is the beginning of the section of Greater Court Hymn; and ‘Tranquil Ancetral Temple’ (《诗经 · 周颂 · 清庙》) is the beginning of the section of Eulogy. Confucius turned all the 305 poems in the collection into songs to the tune of “Shao,” (《韶》) “Wu,” (《武》) court hymns, or eulogies. Only then was ritual music restored and sung. This marked the completion of the kingly way and of Confucius’ completion of the Six Arts” (Sima, 1982, pp. 1936–1937). Sima Qian emphasized that Confucius’ cultural contribution lies in the fact that he adapted The Book of Songs to the teaching of ritual music and made it an important part of the Six Arts.

The idea of “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” was also an aesthetic idea advocated by the Han scholars in view of the lessons learned from the demise of the Qin Dynasty (221 B.C.E.–206 B.C.E.) during the reign of its second emperor. The injustice and lessons of the Qin Dynasty came from its misunderstanding of human nature and its incorrect treatment of human relationships, which eventually led to its demise. Liu Xiang (刘向 77 B.C.E.–6 B.C.E.) of the late Western Han Dynasty criticized the politics of the Qin Dynasty in his Strategies of the Warring States (《战国策书录》): “The ruler and his ministers were suspicious of each other, and relatives were estranged from each other. Morals and education became frivolous and despicable, the ethical system was corrupted and decayed; the people did not observe the rites, and they were restless. The dynasty lasted 14 years and the country fell into turmoil. This is exactly the downside of deceitfulness and hypocrisy. Wasn’t this too far from the virtues of the sage kings” (He, 1990, p. 1356). Liu Xiang criticized the rule of Qin Dynasty for militarism and deceitfulness, which caused the collapse of interpersonal relationships and was far from the ancient sage kings’ rule by virtue, so the politics of Han Dynasty should take a lesson from this, adjust interpersonal relationships, and repair human relationships with the notion of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded. The chapter “Summary” of Huainanzi (《淮南子 · 泰族训》), which was written during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, stated that, “The temperaments representing the Five Elements (五行), though different from each other, are all harmonious; the Six Arts, though different in kinds, are consistent in their essence. Gentle and tender are the character of The Book of Songs; generosity honesty are what The Book of History teaches; clearness and understanding are the essence of The Book of Changes; respect and frugality are the code of conduct advocated by The Book of Rites; generosity and ease are what The Book of Music teaches; and satire on current affairs and discernment of right and wrong are the merits of The Spring and Autumn Annals. Therefore, the fault of The Book of Changes is that it is inscrutable (for readers with insufficient learning); the fault of The Book of Music is that it leads to indulgence; the fault of The Book of Songs is that it makes people resentful; the fault of The Book of History is that it makes people stick to the old ways; the fault of The Book of Rites is that it makes the inferior and the superior hate each other; and the fault of the Spring and Autumn Annals is that it makes people slander each other. The sages make use of the best of these six classics. The loss of the original purposes of these six classics leads to chaos and the mastery of them leads to success. The key is to coordinate the various relationships, and it is wrong to change their essence and spirit (Liu, 2013, pp. 820–821).

This passage came from the same era of the Western Han Dynasty as the concept of “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” in “Explanation of the Six Arts” of The Book of Rites. It contains the cultural idea put forward during the Western Han Dynasty in view of the harsh, ungrateful, and ruthless theory of human nature and political philosophy espoused during the Qin Dynasty. The idea was extended to poetry education in order to reconstruct the system of poetry and music education whereas the term “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” was used to repair the interpersonal relationships of the Chinese nation that had been destroyed during the Qin regime. On this point, Qian Mu (钱穆 1895–1990) once stated that:

Many of the 300 poems of The Book of Songs are about family emotions and family morality. Whether it is between father and son, between siblings, or between husband and wife, all family sorrows and changes reflect the need to be loyal and compassionate, mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded. Only such inner emotions and true morality could sustain the life of ancient Chinese families for centuries and more than tens of hundreds of years (Qian, 1994, p. 54).

This can be said to be a precise summary of the cultural psychology and moral type of the Chinese people presented in The Book of Songs.

The idea of harmony is the basis of the doctrine of the mean, and it is the abstraction and philosophizing of the idea of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded. “Explanation of the Six Arts” of The Book of Rites states that, “If the people are mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, this is because they study The Book of Songs.” This idea considers personal cultivation from the perspective of external edification, and the idea of harmony emphasizes that the inner nature is the root of a mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded personality. According to the chapter of “The Doctrine of the Mean,” “The way of junzi (君子, a man of virtue) may appear insipid yet never boring; (his writing) may be simple and elegant; is mild and yet sensible; he knows that what is far starts from what is near, from where a (new) trend comes, and that what is latent may become dominant. Such a man may acquire great virtue” (Ruan, 2009, p. 3548). On the contrary, if the notion of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded is cultivated from the root, it is at best a kind of personal decoration. It was on this theoretical basis that the neo-Confucianists of the Song Dynasty (960 –1279) integrated the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded with the cultivation of the mind. In this way, being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded belongs not only to the realm of personality, but also gained the support of philosophical ontology, becoming a kind of cultivation of the mind.

2 Being Mild and Gentle, Sincere and Broadminded: Music and Poetry Education

The connection between aesthetics and the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded was realized through the Chinese discursive system of poetry and music education. This concept was constructed and enriched through the discourse of poetry and music education. Poetry and music education is related to the modern form of aesthetics, but it is not exactly the same as the modern form of aesthetics, because poetry and music education is a category and term unique to Confucianism. It was developed and improved by the rulers of the time in response to the need for education.

Poetry education and music education are interrelated and distinct, and both belong to the six arts in the unified feudal empires of China. The six arts originally refer to the six subjects that Confucius taught his students, and later generally referred to the six classics of Confucianism. In the Han Dynasty, the six arts first became a part of state-organized education and was a political and educational measure taken in response to the contempt of the Qin Dynasty for the six arts. Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty considered poetry and music education as the basic way to train scholars. In the Western Han Dynasty, starting with Lu Jia (陆贾 ca.240 B.C.E.–170 B.C.E.), Jia Yi (贾谊 ca.200 B.C.E.–168 B.C.E.), and Jia Shan (贾山 ?–ca.179 B.C.E.), the relationship between poetry education and music education and the study of education on humanity were explored through reflections on the brutal rule of the Qin Dynasty.

In the earliest six arts of Confucianism, poetry and music were intrinsically linked. Poetry was subordinate to the system of music. Thus, music education and poetry education had the same nature, namely to cultivate the mind and reform customs. In terms of the ruler’s edification needs, music education also encouraged people to be “mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded.” Music edification was more easily accepted by the illiterate people. Dong Zhongshu (董仲舒 179 B.C.E.–104 B.C.E.), a great Confucianist of the Western Han Dynasty, wrote to Emperor Wu, stating that:

Music is used to improve the people’s conduct and customs. It is easy to do so and the result is obvious. The sound of music is harmonious, is based on feelings, touches the body, and is hidden deep in the bone marrow. Therefore, although the way of the sage kings has declined, music still prevails (Ban, 1962, p. 2499).

Dong Zhongshu made it clear that music was more effective than poetry in changing conduct and customs and educating the people. Han Dynasty literary and artistic thought emphasized the unity of poetry and music in terms of edification and aesthetics.

In contrast to poetry, music moved and educated people with its sound. While ordinary people could be educated through music, the recitation and use of poetry required appropriate cultural training and social position. In this sense, the edifying function of poetry was more intellectually valuable than that of music, and the cultural cultivation of those creating and appreciating it was more demanding. In ancient times poetry was even used as a cultural mark distinguishing gentlemen from the common people. In his On the Concept of Poetry Expressing Aspirations, Zhu Ziqing discussed in detail how emperors and scholars at that time recited and wrote poetry to express their aspirations. To do so was not so easy; it required a specific state of mind and cultural mastery. Since poetry possessed this characteristic of being “mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded”, it was suitable for euphemistically expressing political demands and thoughts, and mediating the relationship between rulers and ministers.

The integration of poetry and music is evident in the famous story of Ji Zha, the Duke of Wu, commenting on music during the Spring and Autumn Period (770 B.C.E.–476 B.C.E.). The Book of Songs was initially accompanied by music. In the exquisite musical performance, the lyrics of The Book of Songs were conveyed more effectively through musical expression, giving the admiring audience aesthetic satisfaction, while the statements of The Book of Songs as lyrics were sublimated in the music, and the two complemented each other.

Ji Zha (季扎 576 B.C.E−484 B.C.E.), the Duke of Wu (吴), came to visit Lu (鲁) and asked to see the music and dance of the Zhou Dynasty (The king of Lu) asked the musicians to sing for him the Ballads of Zhounan (《周南》) and Zhaonan (《召南》). Ji Zha said, “Beautiful! The foundation of edification of Zhou is beginning to be laid. Though it is not yet perfect, the people are diligent without resentment.” When the musicians sang for him the Ballads from the State Bei (《邶风》), the Ballads from the State Yong (《鄘风》), and the Ballads from the State Wei (《卫风》), he said, “How beautiful and profound! Though there is sorrow, it is not distressing. I have heard that the virtues of Kangshu [康叔, posthumous name for Wei Feng (卫封) dates uncertain] and Duke Wu of Wei (卫武公, posthumous title for Wei He 卫和, dates uncertain) are like this. I suppose this is what the Ballads from the State Wei are about!” When the musicians sang the Ballads from the State Wang (《王风》) for him, he said, “Beautiful! There is sorrow but no fearfulness. This is the music when the Duke of Zhou (周公) was on the expedition to the east!” When the musicians sang for him the Ballads from the State Zheng (《郑风》), he said, “Beautiful! But it is so tedious that the people can no longer bear it. I’m afraid Zheng will be the first state!” When the musicians sang for him the Ballads from the State Qi (《齐风》), he said, “Beautiful! Magnificent and far-reaching. This is the music of a great nation! I suppose it is about the state of Jiang Taigong (姜太公/姜子牙 dates uncertain) that can be an example to the states along the East Sea. Its fortune is really unlimited!” When the musicians sang the Ballads from the State Bin (《豳风》), he said, “Beautiful! How candid! Joyful but not indulgent. I suppose this is the music about the Duke of Zhou during his eastern expedition!” (Ruan, 2009, pp. 4355–4357)

These illustrate that The Book of Songs was perfectly integrated with music through performance, evoking wonderful feelings in the mind of the admirer. The two complemented each other. What Ji Zha perceived when he commented on music was diligence without complaint, sorrow without distress, enjoyment without licentiousness, worry without disloyalty, resentment without being outspoken, uprightness without arrogance, submission without subservience, being close without being threatening, distance without being alienating, variation that is not excessive, repetition that is not tiresome, sorrow without being stressed, joy without indulgence, all of which represent the beauty of harmony. This is the same with the idea of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded; they belong to the same aesthetic category. Therefore, “Yuefu” of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons (《文心雕龙 · 乐府》) states that:

From this, we can see that poetry is the core of music, and melody and rhythm are the form of music. Since the form of music involves melody and rhythm, musicians must adjust their instruments well; since the core of music lies in poetry, the scholars should write fine verses. A line in the Ballads from the State Tang (《唐风》) advocates “Enjoyment without indulgence,” which Ji Zha approved as visionary. A line in the Ballads from the State Zheng reads, “Men and women flirt with each other,” which Ji Zha regarded as an omen for the perish of Zheng (郑). This shows that when Ji Zha listened to the performance of The Book of Songs, his attention was not merely on its melody and rhythem. (Liu, 1958, p. 102)

The statement “poetry is the core of music, and rhythm is the form of music” summarizes the relationship between poetry and music, that is, poetry is the soul of music, and rhythm is the form of music, so only well-written lyrics and well-adjusted instruments can make music elegant and beautiful, and the most important thing is elegant and correct lyrics, that is, elegant and concise poetry. The statement that “when Ji Zha listened to the performance of The Book of Songs, he did not merely pay attention to the tone of its sound” is the same as what Liu Xie (刘勰 ca.465 B.C.E.–?) said: “As for the later Yuefu poems (乐府诗), they are about the intimate relationship between men and women or their separation because their hatred for each other. How can good music be produced based on these lascivious works?” Since poetry is the soul of music, the pursuit of elegance and harmony in music is based on elegant and appropriate poetry, and lascivious works can become a hindrance to good music.

3 The Modern View of the Concept of Being Mild and Gentle, Sincere and Broadminded

The concept of “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” first appeared in line with the rulers’ need to teach the six arts. The chapter “Explanation of the Six Arts” of The Book of Rites depicts the ideal rule of the rulers of the unified feudal autocratic country as follows: “With regard to the Son of Heaven, he comes after Heaven and Earth. Therefore, the Son of Heaven’s virtue is comparable to that of Heaven and Earth, and his blessings are universal, and his brightness is comparable to that of the sun and the moon, shining on Earth without missing any corner. At court, he represents benevolence, sageness, propriety, and righteousness; when he retires from court, he listens to appropriate music; when he walks, the jade pendants he wears ring rhythmically; when he boards the chariot, its bells sound a harmonious tune. In everyday life, his words and deeds all accord with certain rituals and rules; all the officials are in proper positions, and everything is in order.” (Ruan, 2009, pp. 3493–3494)

It was the will of China’s autocratic rulers through the ages to ensure that the six arts were taught so that its subjects cultivated their character and submit to the country, and to realize their ideal political situation. This might be the will of the Chinese rulers throughout the ages. The Kangxi Emperor (康熙皇帝 1654–1722) of the Qing Dynasty (1616–1911) said in the “The Preface to The Imperial Selection of Tang Poems” (《御选唐诗序》): “Confucius said, ‘If the people are mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, this is because they study The Book of Songs.’ The poems of this collection may vary in style, but they all advocate the notion of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded. Those elegant and delicate poems which stress worries and complaints, though well-written, are not selected. This collection is designed to help our readers express their aspirations and acquire a peace of mind. The positive moving voices of the ancient people are also encouraged here in this collection” (Yun, 1986, p. 538). This clearly expresses the ruler’s interpretation of the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded in The Book of Songs. As a result of the decision to select poems advocating the notion of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, Du Fu’s Sanli and Sanbie [三吏三别, referring to “The Officer of Xin’an” (Owen, 2016, pp. 82–85), “The Officer at Tong Pass” (Owen, 2016, pp. 85–87), “The Officer at Stone Moat” (Owen, 2016, pp. 86–89); “Newlyweds Parted” (Owen, 2016, pp. 88–91), “Parted When Getting Old” (Owen, 2016, pp. 92–95), “Parted Without a Family” (Owen, 2016, pp. 95–97)] and Bai Juyi’s (白居易 772–846) new Yuefu poems and some poems reflecting people’s hardships were not selected. This reflects the mindset of Qing Dynasty rulers who used poetry to consolidate their rule, departing from the aesthetic interest of the idea of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded.

In fact, the aesthetic connotations of “being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded” in its later developments are not entirely encompassed by the six arts of Confucianism. When Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty stressed the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, they required poets to be euphemistic and graceful in their tactful advice to the ruler, but in reality, when poets report the hardships of people’s lives and criticized the ruler’s politics, they often broke this pattern and expressed their political demands and feelings with forceful language. The Han-dynasty “The Preface to The Book of Songs” talks about the poets who composed poems in response to contemporary political turmoil: “(Poets should be like) state historians who understand the facts of political gains and losses, feel sorry for the corruption of human relations, and grieve at the cruelty and harshness of penalties, so they recite poems to express their thoughts and feelings, and thus admonish the ruler, which is a practice of understanding the changes in current affairs while adhering to traditional customs.” So the “Introduction” stresses that poets should shoulder historical responsibility and when the state is at peril, they should “express their thoughts and feelings to admonish the ruler.” This is the essence of the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, which expresses Confucius’ literary idea that “poetry can criticize injustice” and his spirit of resistance to the customs of the time.

During the Six Dynasties (referring to the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, 220–589), scholars extended this aesthetic concept to the value of life. The literati at that time believed that only in aesthetic and artistic activities could people achieve spiritual transcendence and psychological solace. In his famous “The Preface to the Critique of The Book of Songs,” (《诗品序》) the Liang-dynasty (502–557) literary critic Zhong Rong (钟嵘 ca. 468–ca. 518) cited various life misfortunes as triggers for a poet’s creation: “Where all these things touch the soul, how can one exhibit their meaning without writing a poem? How can one express emotions without singing aloud? Therefore, it is said: ‘Poetry can help you communicate with others and criticize injustice.’ So poetry is the best way to ease the mind of those who are in a difficult situations, and to relieve the depression of those who live in seclusion. Therefore, all poets love to write poems.” (Zhong, 1998, pp. 20–21) Zhong Rong believed that authors at that time liked to write poems, precisely because poems could relieve the worries of those who had suffered from all kinds of misfortune in life by enabling them to express their emotions. In contrast to the literary criticism of the Pre-Qin period and the Han Dynasty, which mostly considered literary issues from a theoretical and discursive perspective, the approach to literary criticism pioneered by Zhong Rong’s The Critique of Poetry (《诗品》) focuses more on human life experiences and analyzes the characteristics and functions of literature from all levels of life activities. Later, Huang Zongxi (黄宗羲 1610–1695) of the Qing Dynasty also said, “Criticisms do not have to refer exclusively to the criticism of political injustice; they can also refer to the poems of later generations about mourning, elegy, condemnation, and satire.” (Huang, 1959, p. 358) This is also what Zhong Rong meant. Jiao Hong (焦竑 1540–1620), a literary figure of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), said: “Poetry is nothing but what is created by people’s creative inspiration. Without inspiration, people cannot have deep emotions; without deep emotions they cannot compose soul-stirring and everlasting poems.” (Jiao, 1999, p. 155) After Jiao Hong, a romantic writer and a contemporary of Li Zhi (李贽 1527–1602), examined the development of ancient poetry, he proposed that most of the poems criticizing injustice were made by scholars when they were in trouble, so their emotions were real and touching. Among the poems selected by Confucius, although there are some poems written by people who had accomplished their ambitions, after reading them, the unforgettable ones are those poems criticizing injustice in the ballads of changes and the court hymns changes.

In the Song Dynasty, the popularity of the notion of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded dwindled, so the concept became a category of self-cultivation of neo-Confucianists. Zhu Xi was very dissatisfied with the views of Han Confucian interpretations of The Book of Songs, and he put forward a set of theories in the “The Preface to On The Book of Songs”: “Poetry is the result of the human heart perceiving external objects and making up for the lack of verbal expression. The feelings of the human heart can be evil or righteous, and therefore verbal expressions can also be right or wrong. Only the sages, who are at the top, have pure feelings and their words have an edifying effect. If the feelings are mixed, and the words expressed are optional, then those who are in the court will definitely ask, exhort, and discipline themselves, and this will have an edifying effect (Zhu, 2017, p. 1). Compared to the “The Preface to The Book of Songs,” this passage of Zhu Xi sounds more neo-Confucianist. “The Preface to The Book of Songs” pays more attention to the aesthetic characteristics of poetry, emphasizing the use of the techniques of narrative, analogy, and association to express the ideas and emotions, whereas Zhu Xi (朱熹 1130–1200) does not mention the status of emotions in the creation of poetry, but highlights the role and status of “thinking.” According to Zhu, poetry education is the sages teaching morality to the people. This view is obviously more conservative.

At this time, a group of romantic writers in the Ming Dynasty raised their voices and advocated the beauty of impetuousness and conflict. The spirit of criticism in Confucius’ poetry theory of stimulation, contemplation, communication, and criticism was revived. In his “Reply to Xu Koubei,” (《答徐口北》) the Ming literatus Xu Wei (徐渭 1521–1593) proposed, “When you read selected poems, if they are like cold water poured on your back and you are suddenly shocked, then they are poems characterized by stimulation, contemplation, communication, and criticism; otherwise, they are not.” (Xu, 1983, p. 482) Xu Wei believed that only these poems were good ones. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, Liao Yan (廖燕 1644–1705), He Yisun (贺贻孙 1605–1688) and Huang Zongxi, felt deep pain at the fall of the Ming Dynasty, and refused to serve as officials and reflected upon the lessons of the Ming Dynasty. They wrote poetry about the pain of the fall of the dynasty, advocating the beauty of sadness and anger, and despising the beauty of harmony. Huang Zongxi experienced the late Ming social upheaval and the defeat of the Ming Dynasty by the Qing Dynasty. When the Qing troops invaded south, he had recruited volunteers in an attempt to support the Ming Dynasty. After the failure, he refused to serve as officials for the Qing court. He lived in the countryside where he wrote and taught. These experiences left the marks of time on his poetry and poetry education. Therefore, he promoted the ballads of changes and the court hymns changes. In “The Preface to the Poems of Wan Zhenyi,” (《万贞一诗序》) Huang Zongxi rhetorically asked, “Joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness are the feelings naturally arising from external objects. Why are joy and happiness considered part of the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded while anger and sorrow are not?” He did not simply advocate changing Ballads and Court Hymns, but rather advocated strong love and hate, so that poets would dare to express anger and criticize. He used distinct right and wrong and strong love and hatred as the main connotation of the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, which was a big breakthrough in the traditionally held definition of this concept.

Shen Deqian (沈德潜 1673–1769), a literary figure of the Qing Dynasty, strongly advocated that poetry education should be characterized by the notion of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, saying in the “Preface” to his Selected Qing Poems (《清诗别裁集 · 凡例》) that:

The reason why poetry is important is no more than the famous sayings Confucius taught his disciples and son. Poetry is written with the aim of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, which can be said to be a theory of both the past and present. Since Lu Ji (陆机 261–303) proposed that the characteristic of poetry is to express human thoughts and emotions through beautiful forms, later poets have taken this statement as the criterion of their poems, and thus, with the passage of time, poetry has become more and more distant from the aim of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded. I have selected poems of different styles, with the criterion that they express the idea of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded (Shen, 2013, p. 1).

By “what Confucius taught the young fellow Boyu,” Shen refers to the chapter “Yanghuo” of The Analects (《论语 · 阳货》), “Why do you young people not study The Book of Songs? I can inspire you; teach you to observe, communicate with others, express complaints; guide you to serve your parents at home and the ruler at court; and teach you the names of many birds and beasts, trees and plants.” Confucius said to his son Boyu (伯鱼 532 B.C.E−483 B.C.E.), “Have you learned the Ballads of Zhounan and Zhaonan? If not, you will be like a man standing with your face to a wall.” Although these lines are a commonplace, most of the poetry educators had not directly linked them to being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded.” Shen attributed these lines to being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded with the purpose of using Confucius’ authority to strengthen poetry education. Shen advocated the poetry education characterized by the notion of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, in order to revive the literary and artistic edification in the Qing Dynasty and to oppose the trend of intellectual liberation since the Ming Dynasty. He was therefore ridiculed by Yuan Mei (袁枚 1716–1797), a progressive literary figure of the time, who advocated natural expression of feelings (性灵说).

On the eve of the Revolution of 1911, Lu Xun (鲁迅 1881–1936) wrote “The Power of the Mara Poet” (《摩罗诗力说》) to make a fierce attack on the traditional poetry education doctrine. He said: “For example, in Chinese poetry, Emperor Shun said, ‘Poetry gives expression to aspirations,’ but later scholars argued that poetry should improve people’s temperament. The 300 or so poems of The Book of Songs feature pure thoughts, without any evil ideas. If poetry is said to give expression to aspirations, why is it said to improve human nature? By stipulating that poetry should feature pure themes, the poet cannot always express his true thoughts and aspirations. To place freedom under strict supervision and restraint is probably the essence of the teaching of poetry, right? In this way, the subsequent writings (on poetry), as a matter of fact, have not been able to go beyond the limitation that poetry should either give expression to aspirations or be pure in thought.” Lu Xun believed that since poetry is meant to give expression to aspirations, poets should be allowed to speak freely. Why should they be told to contain their emotions to achieve the so-called purpose of “having no depraved thoughts”? This is tantamount to “spurring the poets forward and holding them back at the same time.” Under the influence of this literary concept of traditional literature, even renowned poets such as Qu Yuan (屈原 ca.340 B.C.E.–ca.278 B.C.E.) could not help much. Lu Xun added, “Qu Yuan boldly spoke up, saying what others dared not say. However, there are still many gaudy words and poignant tones in his works, while the voice of defiance and challenge is never presented. Therefore, his poems do not have the power to move future generations.” As traditional Chinese literature was considered beautiful for not challenging people’s heart, it caused the people to be slack. Lu Xun said, “If their heart is not challenged, it will wither or shrivel.” (Lu, 1958, pp. 200–201) From the perspective of enlightenment thinking, Lu Xun bitterly criticized the traditional literary theory represented by Confucianism for “containing writers’ emotions” and made a fierce attack on the conservative and backward national aesthetic psychology, while promoting the wildly progressive literary and aesthetic ideas of Western poets such as Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), George Gordon Byron (1788–1824), Heinrich Heine (1797–1856), and Petöfi Sándor (1823–1849). Lu believed that only this kind of literature and art could break the stagnant state of literature, promote humanistic spirit, forge a new national character, and express a new aesthetic thought. Under the circumstances of his time, Lu Xun’s criticism was understandable and had positive significance. However, it is not convincing for him to blame all the conservatism and backwardness of traditional culture on the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded. Since the May Fourth Movement, the conservative character of Chinese people has been caused not by the concept of being mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, but by the residual poison of feudal autocracy, complacent isolationism, and blind xenophobia. Meanwhile, we should be aware of existing social problems like extreme behaviors caused by extreme psychological states. For this reason, it is necessary to teach people to be mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded, and to reconstruct this aesthetic psychology. We should take this effort as an important project for reflecting on our traditional culture and new understanding of Confucianism.