Personal Growth Initiative as a Psychological Armor: Mitigating the Effects of Gender Discrimination on Women Empowerment

References

Ahmed, Sadaf, Amna Khan, Sana Khan, and Shamoon Noushad. 2014. “Early Marriage: A Root of Current Physiological and Psychosocial Health Burdens.” International Journal of Endorsing Health Science Research 2 (1): 50–3. https://doi.org/10.29052/IJEHSR.v2.i1.2014.50-53.Search in Google Scholar

Ali, Shaheen Sardar. 2006. Applying Islamic Criminal Justice in Plural Legal Systems: Exploring Gender–Sensitive Judicial Responses to Hudood Laws in Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: Paper presented at the International Judicial Conference. http://supermecourt.gov.pk/ijc/articles/11/2.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Ali, Tazeen S., Gunilla Krantz, Raisa Gul, Nargis Asad, Eva Johansson, and Ingrid Mogren. 2011. “Gender Roles and Their Influence on Life Prospects for Women in Urban Karachi, Pakistan: A Qualitative Study.” Global Health Action 4: 7448. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v4i0.7448.Search in Google Scholar

Anila, Kamal, and Zafar Afaq Ansari. 1992. “Development of Sex Role Attitude Scale for Pakistan.” In Master’s Thesis, National Institute of Psychology. Islamabad, Pakistan: Quaid-i-Azam University. Unpublished.Search in Google Scholar

Anjum, Tabinda, Niaz Hussain Malik, and Saeed Ahmad Khan. 1995. “A Study of Dowry and Marriage Arrangements in a Rural Area of District Faisalabad.” Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences 32 (4): 298–9.Search in Google Scholar

Arshad, Shafaq, Muhammad Ashfaq, Aqeela Saghir, Muhammad Ashraf, Mudassar Yasin, Muhammad Asim Lodhi, et al.. 2010. “Gender and Decision Making Process in Livestock Management.” Sarhad Journal of Agriculture 24 (4): 693–6. https://scispace.com/pdf/gender-and-decision-making-process-in-livestock-management-2nowxz1lf2.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Ashraf, Javed, and Birjees Ashraf. 1993. “An Analysis of the Male–Female Earnings Differential in Pakistan.” Pakistan Development Review 32 (4): 895–904. https://doi.org/10.30541/v32i4iipp.895-904.Search in Google Scholar

Asian Development Bank. 2000. Country Briefing Paper: Women in Pakistan. Manila: Asian Development Bank. ISBN 971-561-297-0. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/32562/women-pakistan.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Baron, Reuben M., and David A. Kenny. 1986. “The Moderator–Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51: 1173–82. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173.Search in Google Scholar

Bartley, Denise F., and Christine C. Robitschek. 2000. “Career Exploration: A Multivariate Analysis of Predictors.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 56 (1): 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1999.1708.Search in Google Scholar

Borja, Shawna E., and Jennifer L. Callahan. 2009. “The Trauma Outcome Process Assessment Model: A Structural Equation Model Examination of Adjustment.” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 18 (5): 532–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538710903182685.Search in Google Scholar

Buunk, Bram P., and Peter P. M. Janssen. 1992. “Relative Deprivation, Career Issues, and Mental Health Among Men in Midlife.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 40: 339–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791-92-90055-5.Search in Google Scholar

Callahan, Jennifer L., Shawna E. Borja, Gregory L. Herbert, Kevin Maxwell, and Camilo J. Ruggero. 2013. “Test of the Trauma Outcome Process Assessment Model: One Model of Individual and Environmental Factors to Explain Adjustment.” Traumatology 19 (4): 268–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765613476098.Search in Google Scholar

Cassidy, Margaret L., and Bruce O. Warren. 1996. “Family Employment Status and Gender Role Attitudes: A Comparison of Women and Men College Graduates.” Gender and Society 10 (3): 312–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124396010003007.Search in Google Scholar

Cattaneo, Lauren B., and Lisa A. Goodman. 2015. “What Is Empowerment Anyway? A Model for Domestic Violence Practice, Research, and Evaluation.” Psychology of Violence 5 (1): 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035137.Search in Google Scholar

Choma, Becky L., Carolyn L. Hafer, Faye J. Crosby, and Matthew D. Foster. 2012. “Perceptions of Personal Sex Discrimination: The Role of Belief in a Just World and Situational Ambiguity.” The Journal of Social Psychology 152 (5): 568–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2012.667459.Search in Google Scholar

Cohen, Jacob. 1988. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Search in Google Scholar

Coleman, Isobel. 2005. “The Payoff from Women’s Rights.” Foreign Affairs 83 (3): 80. https://doi.org/10.2307/20033977. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2004-05-01/payoff-womens-rights.Search in Google Scholar

Corning, Amy F. 2000. “Assessing Perceived Social Inequity: A Relative Deprivation Framework.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 (3): 463–77. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.78.3.463.Search in Google Scholar

Corning, Amy F. 2002. “Self-Esteem as a Moderator Between Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Distress Among Women.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 49 (1): 117–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.49.1.117.Search in Google Scholar

Crosby, Faye J. 1976. “A Model of Egotistical Relative Deprivation.” Psychological Review 83: 85–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.83.2.85.Search in Google Scholar

Crosby, Faye J. 1982. Relative Deprivation and Working Women. New York: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Crosby, Faye J. 1984. “The Denial of Personal Discrimination.” American Behavioral Scientist 27: 371–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276484027003008.Search in Google Scholar

Edwards, Jeffrey R., and Lisa S. Schurer Lambert. 2007. “Methods for Integrating Moderation and Mediation: A General Analytical Framework Using Moderated Path Analysis.” Psychological Methods 12 (1): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.1.1.Search in Google Scholar

Evans, Ashley Brooke. 2011. The Relation of Gender to Racial Discrimination Experiences and Achievement among Black College Students. PhD diss. University of Michigan. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/89778/ashleye_1.pdf?sequence=1.Search in Google Scholar

Faridi, Muhammad Zahir, and Ayesha Rashid. 2014. “The Correlates of Educated Women’s Labor Force Participation in Pakistan: A Micro Study.” The Lahore Journal of Economics 19 (2): 155–84. https://doi.org/10.35536/lje.2014.v19.i2.a6. https://ideas.repec.org/a/lje/journl/v19y2014i2p155-184.html.Search in Google Scholar

Fatima, Duryab. 2014. Education, Employment, and Women’s Say in Household Decision-Making in Pakistan. Lahore: Centre for Research in Economics and Business, Lahore School of Economics. https://creb.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Working-Paper-Series-No.04-14-Complete.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Foley, Sharon, Hang‐Yue Ngo, and Raymond Loi. 2006. “Antecedents and Consequences of Perceived Personal Gender Discrimination: A Study of Solicitors in Hong Kong.” Sex Roles 55 (3–4): 197–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9070-x.Search in Google Scholar

Galloway, Sonia D. 2014. The Impact of Islam as a Religion and Muslim Women on Gender Equality: A Phenomenological Research Study. PhD diss. Nova Southeastern University. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/shss_dcar_etd/14/.Search in Google Scholar

Government of Pakistan. 2002. National Commission on the Status of Women: First Annual Report. Islamabad: Government of Pakistan.Search in Google Scholar

Government of Pakistan. 2005. The State of Education in Pakistan 2003–04. Islamabad: Ministry of Education.Search in Google Scholar

Government of Pakistan. 2010. Compendium on Gender Statistics in Pakistan 2009. Islamabad: Federal Bureau of Statistics. http://www.statpak.gov.pk.Search in Google Scholar

Government of Pakistan. 2014. Compendium on Gender Statistics of Pakistan 2014. Islamabad: Federal Bureau of Statistics.Search in Google Scholar

Hameed, Waqas, Syed Khurram Azmat, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Ishaque Sheikh, Ghazunfer Abbas, Marleen Temmerman, et al.. 2014. “Women’s Empowerment and Contraceptive Use: The Role of Independent versus Couples’ Decision-Making, from a Lower Middle Income Country Perspective.” PLoS One 9 (8): e104633. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104633. https://journals.plos.org/plosone.Search in Google Scholar

Haq, Muhammad Abrar-ul-, Razani Mohd Jali Mohd, and Gazi Md Nural Islam. 2017. “Decision-Making Ability as a Source of Empowerment Among Rural Women of Pakistan.” Global Social Welfare 4 (3): 117–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-017-0091-7.Search in Google Scholar

Haque, Minhaj ul. 2002. Discrimination Starts at Home: A Brief on Parents’ Aspirations for Adolescents and Youth in Pakistan. Islamabad: Population Council. https://knowledgecommons.popcouncil.org/departments_sbsr-pgy/1330/.Search in Google Scholar

Haque, Riffat. 2010. “Gender and Nexus of Purdah Culture in Public Policy.” South Asian Studies: A Research Journal of South Asian Studies 25 (2): 303–10. http://mowdalumni.com.pk/pdf/drriffat.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Hayes, Andrew F. 2013a. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. New York: Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar

Hayes, Andrew F. 2013b. Process: A Versatile Computational Tool for Observed Variable Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Modeling. http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Hayes, Andrew F., and Kristopher J. Preacher. 2013. Structural Equation Modeling: A Second Course. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.Search in Google Scholar

Hu, Li-tze, and Peter M. Bentler. 1999. “Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives.” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 6 (1): 1–55, https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.Search in Google Scholar

Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. 2002. Annual Report. Islamabad: Human Rights Commission of Pakistan.Search in Google Scholar

Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP). 2015. State of Human Rights in 2014. Lahore: Human Rights Commission of Pakistan.Search in Google Scholar

Kabeer, Naila, and Subrahmanian Ramya. 1999. Institutions, Relations and Outcomes: A Framework and Case Studies for Gender Aware Planning. New Delhi: Kali for Women. https://www.ids.ac.uk/download.php?file=files/Dp357.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Kamal, Anila, and Tehmina Saqib. 2004. Exploring Change in Gender Role Attitudes. Islamabad: National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University.Search in Google Scholar

Kenny, David A., Bülent Kaniskan, and D. Betsy McCoach. 2015. “The Performance of RMSEA in Models with Small Degrees of Freedom.” Sociological Methods and Research 44 (3): 486–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124114543236.Search in Google Scholar

Liaquat, Fatima, and Rafia Rafique. 2013. Parenting Styles, Personal Growth Initiative and Perceived Social Barriers in Career Decision Making. Punjab University Psychological Abstracts. pg.no.22 https://pu.edu.pk/images/image/Departments/appsy/Psychological-Abstract-2011-13.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Malik, Najma, Ghulam Yasin, and Humaira Shahzadi. 2015. “Personal Growth Initiative and Self-Esteem as Predictors of Academic Achievement Among Students of Technical Training Institutes.” Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 35 (2): 703–14.Search in Google Scholar

Meyers, Maria Christina, Marianne van Woerkom, Renee S. M. de Reuve, Zsuzsa Bakk, and Daniel L. Obersk. 2015. “Enhancing Psychological Capital and Personal Growth Initiative: Working on Strengths or Deficiencies.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 32 (1): 50–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000050.Search in Google Scholar

Moradi, Bonnie, and Christina Risco. 2006. “Perceived Discrimination Experiences and Mental Health of Latina/o American Persons.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 53 (4): 411–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.4.411.Search in Google Scholar

Morgan, Sarah L. C. 2014. The Role of an International Higher Education Partnership to Improve Gender Equality and Empower Women. PhD diss. California, United States of America: Biola University. Unpublished.Search in Google Scholar

National Education Management Information System (NEMIS). 2015. Pakistan Education Statistics 2013–14. Islamabad: Academy of Educational Planning and Management.Search in Google Scholar

Nauman, Binish, and Abdus Sattar Abbasi. 2014. “Sexual Harassment at Workplace: A Case of Banking Sector in Lahore.” Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 20 (5): 558–66. https://lahore.comsats.edu.pk/Papers/Abstracts/539-8587436721937900808.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Neff, Kristin D., Stephanie S. Rude, and Keri L. Kirkpatrick. 2007. “An Examination of Self-Compassion in Relation to Positive Psychological Functioning and Personality Traits.” Journal of Research in Personality 41 (4): 908–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002.Search in Google Scholar

Ngo, Hang-Yue, Sharon Foley, Annie Wong, and Raymond Loi. 2013. “Who Gets More of the Pie? Predictors of Perceived Gender Inequity at Work.” Journal of Business Ethics 45: 227–41. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024179524538.10.1023/A:1024179524538Search in Google Scholar

Noor, Muhammad Jehanzeb. 2004. Daughters of Eve: Violence Against Women in Pakistan. Bachelor’s thesis. Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Unpublished https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/32771.Search in Google Scholar

Nosheen, Farhana, Tanvir Ali, Munir Ahmad, Haq Nawaz Anwar, Muhammad Ahmad, and Ashraf Iqbal. 2009. “Assessing Gender Role in Decision Making Regarding Socioeconomic Activities in Rural Punjab.” Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences 46 (1): 73–7. https://api.pakjas.com.pk/downloadPaper/128.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Ogunyemi, Ajibola O., and Sesan Ola Mabekoje. 2007. “Self–Efficacy, Risk–Taking Behavior and Mental Health as Predictors of Personal Growth Initiative Among University Undergraduates.” Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology 5 (2): 349–62.Search in Google Scholar

Pakeeza, Shahzadi. 2015. “Domestic Violence Laws and Practices in Pakistan.” Transactions on Education and Social Sciences 6 (1): 17–20. https://vfast.org/journals/index.php/VTESS/article/download/205/296/895.Search in Google Scholar

Pascoe, Elizabeth A., and Laura Smart Richman. 2009. “Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Psychological Bulletin 135 (4): 531–54. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059.Search in Google Scholar

Preacher, Kristopher J., Derek D. Rucker, and Andrew F. Hayes. 2007. “Addressing Moderated Mediation Hypotheses: Theory, Methods, and Prescriptions.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 42 (1): 185–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170701341316.Search in Google Scholar

Rai, Shirin M., Nafisa Shah, and Aazar Ayaz. 2007. Achieving Gender Equality in Public Offices in Islamabad. Islamabad: United Nations Development Programme Pakistan. https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/rai/outreach/undp_report.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Rasul, Sarwet. 2014. “Empowerment of Pakistani Women: Perceptions and Reality.” Journal of National Defense University 28: 113–26. https://web.archive.org/web/20170517130214id_/http://www.ndu.edu.pk:80/issra/issra_pub/articles/ndu-journal/NDU-Journal-2014/07-Empowerment-of-Pakistani-Women.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Robitschek, Christine. 1998. “Personal Growth Initiative: The Construct and its Measure.” Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development 30 (4): 183–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.1998.12068941.Search in Google Scholar

Robitschek, Christine, and Corey Lee M. Keyes. 2009. “Keyes’s Model of Mental Health with Personal Growth Initiative as a Parsimonious Predictor.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 56 (2): 321–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013954.Search in Google Scholar

Robitschek, Christine, W. Ashton Matthew, C. Spering Cynthia, Geiger Nathaniel, Danielle Byers, G. Christian Schotts, et al.. 2012. “Development and Psychometric Properties of the Personal Growth Initiative Scale–II.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 59: 274–87. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22352950/.10.1037/a0027310Search in Google Scholar

Ryff, Carol D., and Corey Lee M. Keyes. 1995. “The Structure of Psychological Well-Being Revisited.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (4): 719–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719. https://midus.wisc.edu/findings/pdfs/830.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Schmitt, Michael T., Nyla R. Branscombe, Diane Kobrynowicz, and Stacey Owen. 2002. “Perceiving Discrimination against One’s Gender Group Has Different Implications for Well-Being in Women and Men.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2): 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202282005.Search in Google Scholar

Settles, Isis H., Lilia M. Cortina, Nicole T. Buchanan, and Kaye N. Miner. 2013. “Derogation, Discrimination, and (Dis) Satisfaction with Jobs in Science: A Gendered Analysis.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 37 (2): 179–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313476310.Search in Google Scholar

Shahnaz, Lubna, and Zainab Kizilbash. 2002. “Commenting on the Causal Factors Controlling Female Decision Making: A Study of Female Decision Making Regarding Paid Employment, Punjab, Pakistan.” The Lahore Journal of Economics 7 (1): 75–88. https://doi.org/10.35536/lje.2002.v7.i1.a4. https://nja.pastic.gov.pk/LJE/index.php/LJE/article/view/1590/1563.Search in Google Scholar

Sharma, Hemant Lata, and Ritu Rani. 2013. “Relationship of Personal Growth Initiative with Self-Efficacy Among University Postgraduate Students.” Journal of Education and Practice 4 (16): 125–35. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322790453_Relationship_of_Personal_Growth_Initiative_with_Self-Efficacy_among_University_Postgraduate_Students.Search in Google Scholar

Shorey, Hal S., Todd D. Little, Charles Richard Snyder, Ben Kluck, and Christine Robitschek. 2007. “Hope and Personal Growth Initiative: A Comparison of Positive, Future-Oriented Constructs.” Personality and Individual Differences 43 (8): 1917–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.012.Search in Google Scholar

Siddiqui, Rehana, and Shahnaz Hamid. 2003. Gender, Poverty, and Occupational Choice in Poor and Non-Poor Households: An Analysis Based on the Household Survey Data of Pakistan (MIMAP Report No. 17). Islamabad: MIMAP Pakistan. https://file.pide.org.pk/pdfpideresearch/mimap-17-gender-poverty-and-occupational-choice-in-poor-and-non-poor-households.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Smith, Heather J., Thomas F. Pettigrew, Gina M. Pippin, and Bialosiewicz. Sylwia. 2012. “Relative Deprivation: A Theoretical and Meta-Analytic Review.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 16 (3): 203–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311430825.Search in Google Scholar

Stouffer, Samuel A., Edward A. Suchman, Leland C. DeVinney, Shirley A. Star, and Robin M. WilliamsJr. 1949. The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Sultan, Sarwat. 2011. “Stigmatization: Addressing Self-Esteem and Personal Growth in Patients with Psychological and Physiological Illness.” Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 31 (1): 29–36.Search in Google Scholar

Tabassum, Cheema, Sofia. 1997. Psychological Costs and Benefits for Working and Non-Working Women. MPhil diss. Islamabad, Pakistan: National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University. Unpublished.Search in Google Scholar

Tabassum, Naima. 2016. Women in Pakistan: Status in Socio–Cultural and Politico–Legal Domains. Islamabad: Higher Education Commission, Government of Pakistan. ISBN 978–969–417–186–9.Search in Google Scholar

Tabassum, Naima, Afzal Tabassum, and Huma Tabassum. 2013. “Women in Pakistan: Experiences from Women’s Literacy and Empowerment Initiative in Rural Sindh.” WomenWise 5: 1–27.Search in Google Scholar

United Nations Population Fund. 2017. Pakistan Population and Housing Census 2017: Monitoring/Observation Mission, National Report. Islamabad: United Nations Population Fund. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320908411_Monitoring_Observation_Mission_Pakistan_Population_and_Housing_Census_2017Census in Pakistan 2017: International/National Observation and Monitoring Mission.Search in Google Scholar

Weigold, Ingrid K., and Christine Robitschek. 2011. “Agentic Personality Characteristics and Coping: Their Relation to Trait Anxiety in College Students.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 81 (2): 255–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01094.x.Search in Google Scholar

Weigold, Ingrid K., Arne Weigold, Elizabeth J. Russell, and Naomi M. Drakeford. 2014. “Examination of the Psychometric Properties of the Personal Growth Initiative Scale–II in African American College Students.” Assessment 21 (6): 754–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191114524019.Search in Google Scholar

Weiss, Anita M. 2003. “Interpreting Islam and Women’s Rights: Implementing CEDAW in Pakistan.” International Sociology 18 (3): 581–601. https://doi.org/10.1177/02685809030183007.Search in Google Scholar

Weiss, Anita M. 2012. Moving Forward with the Legal Empowerment of Women in Pakistan. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace. https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/wps/usip/0025392/f_0025392_20752.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Williams, David R., Haile Rogers, Shervin A. Mohammed, Anthony Herman Joseph (J.) Sonnega, James S. Jackson. 2012. “Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being in the USA and South Africa.” Ethnicity and Health 17 (1–2): 111–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2012.654770.Search in Google Scholar

Yakunina, Elena S., Irene K. Weigold, Andrew Weigold, Sanja Hercegovac, and Nadia Elsayed. 2013. “International Students’ Personal and Multicultural Strengths: Reducing Acculturative Stress and Promoting Adjustment.” Journal of Counseling and Development 91 (2): 216–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2013.00088.x.Search in Google Scholar

Zafar, Saira, Zahira Batool, and Sana Bano. 2005. “Female Participation in Decision-Making Process in Family Matters in District Faisalabad, Pakistan.” Journal of Agriculture and Social Sciences 1 (3): 285–7.Search in Google Scholar

Zaman, Sadia, and Irum Naqvi. 2018. “Role of Personal Growth Initiative as a Moderator between Stress and Mental Health Among Adolescents.” Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research 33 (1): 123–47.Search in Google Scholar

Zaman, Sadia, and Irum Naqvi. 2020. “Translation and Validation of Personal Growth Initiative Scale-II for Pakistani Adults.” Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research 35: 657–74. https://doi.org/10.33824/pjpr.2020.35.4.35.Search in Google Scholar

Zaman, Sadia, and Irum Naqvi. 2021. “Understanding of Perceived Gender Discrimination Phenomenon Among Women in the Pakistani Context.” NUST Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 7 (2): 186–204. https://doi.org/10.51732/njssh.v7i2.89.Search in Google Scholar

Zaman, Sadia, and Irum Naqvi. 2022. “Development and Validation of a Perceived Gender Discrimination Scale (PGDS) for Pakistani Women.” Foundation University Journal of Psychology 6 (1). https://fui.edu.pk/fjs/index.php/fujp/article/view.10.33897/fujp.v6i2.308Search in Google Scholar

Zia, Shahla, and Farzana Bari. 1999. Baseline Report on Women’s Participation in Political and Public Life in Pakistan. Islamabad: Aurat Foundation and Pattan. https://shirkatgah.org/shirkat/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Women-in-Politics-SB-English.pdf (accessed August 21, 2025).Search in Google Scholar

Zimmerman, Marc A. 1990. “Taking Aim on Empowerment Research: On the Distinction between Individual and Psychological Conception.” American Journal of Community Psychology 18 (1): 169–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00922695. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.Search in Google Scholar

Zoogah, David B. 2010. “Why Should i be Left behind? Employees Perceived Relative Deprivation and Participation in Development Activities.” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (1): 159–79. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018019.Search in Google Scholar