Gender Equality and Decent Work Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review and Future Agenda towards Sustainable Development

2.1.1 Identifying Relevant Studies

Our systematic search encompassed databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and African Journals Online (AJOL) using key terms related to gender equality, decent work, and SSA. For instance, our search strategy in Scopus involved the query: (TITLE-ABS-KEY (“gender equality” OR “gender inequality” OR “gendered-base” OR “gender”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“decent work”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“sub-Saharan Africa”)) AND PUBYEAR > 2017 AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”)). Similar key terms and constraints were applied in searches conducted on PubMed, and AJOL.

2.1.2 Study Selection

To ensure a focused review, strict inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied.

2.1.3 Quality Assurance Measures

To ensure the reliability and validity of this review, study selection and data extraction were conducted independently by two reviewers, and discrepancies were resolved through consensus or arbitration by a third party. Additional rigor was ensured by peer-reviewing the search strategy using the PRESS (Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies) checklist (McGowan et al. 2016), confirming the relevance and quality of both academic and report-based sources included in the scoping review. The quality appraisal tool developed by Hawker et al. (2002) was employed to evaluate the risk of bias and assess the overall quality of the studies included in this systematic review. This established tool enabled a thorough assessment of key study components, including study design, sample size justification, data collection methods, analysis techniques, result presentation, potential biases, and overall reporting quality. Nine quality appraisal questions, such as “Did they provide a clear description of the study?” and “Was there a good background and clear statement of the aims of the research?” guided the evaluation. Each item was rated on a 4-point scale: Good (3), Fair (2), Poor (1), and Very Poor (0). The maximum total quality score for each study is 27. Studies scoring 0–7 are considered low quality, 8–14 average quality, 15–21 good quality, and 22–27 high quality (Hawker et al. 2002).

To mitigate potential biases related to language and publication year limitations we implemented several strategies to enhance the reliability of our findings. While our scope was restricted to English-language studies published between 2018 and 2024, we prioritized well-regarded reports from prominent international organizations, such as the 2024 reports from the UN Statistics Division, UNDP, ILO statistical reports, and the World Economic Forum. These reports often synthesize and cite a variety of secondary materials, including studies in non-English languages, thereby broadening the scope of insights and contextual understanding beyond the limitations of only including English-language publications. Additionally, the deliberate exclusion of older publications was intended to ensure the timeliness of our data, under the assumption that recent studies would more accurately reflect current practices and contextual changes. Nevertheless, we actively sought out reports and research articles that included historical context and longitudinal data to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding progress over time within the SSA region. These efforts collectively aim to ensure that our review offers a well-rounded synthesis that, despite its limitations, reliably guides actionable steps toward achieving gender equity and decent work standards in SSA.

2.2.1 Stage 2: Qualitative Analysis and Reporting

The review systematically collated, summarized, and synthesized findings from the 55 peer-reviewed literature and 4 selected international reports, highlighting emerging patterns and assessing the effectiveness of documented policies. The quality assessment results revealed that these studies and reports had good to high-quality scores, ranging from 21 to 26 out of a total score of 27, ensuring a reliable and credible foundation for the analysis. Special attention was given to empirical data, examining how these reports complement academic research and contribute to understanding the progress and challenges in achieving gender equality and decent work environments in SSA. A detailed data extraction form was used to chart key information from the selected studies and reports, focusing on methodologies, key findings, recommendations, and impacts on policy or practice related to SSA. This approach ensures a robust synthesis of both academic and practical insights.

3.1.1 Educational Disparities and Gender Equality

Education is a critical driver of gender equality. Baten et al. (2021) identified significant challenges the SSA region faces in closing educational gender gaps such as low secondary school enrollment (less than 15 % of girls complete lower secondary education in Chad and South Sudan), and lower tertiary education gender parity (only 65 women graduating for every 100 men). These disparities have persisted over historical periods, placing SSA behind other regions globally. In their study Southern African countries stood out in the SSA region for maintaining more gender-equal education systems throughout the 20th century. Expanding on this, Baten et al. (2021) introduced the “educational gender Kuznets curve,” which illustrates how urbanization and historical factors influence trajectories of gender equality in education. This framework underscores the complex interplay between societal development and educational equity. Increased public education expenditures have been shown to positively impact gender equality, as noted by Mbodji (2023). However, complicating factors such as remittances and population growth can dilute these effects. Higher educational attainment fosters progressive attitudes toward gender equality, as highlighted by Kyoore and Sulemana (2019), further emphasizing education’s transformative role in achieving parity.

Education also intersects with broader sustainability goals. Doğan and Kirikkaleli (2021) emphasized the connection between educational progress and environmental sustainability efforts, while Delprato (2022) underscored the importance of empowering mothers to enhance children’s educational outcomes and address intergenerational disparities (Delprato 2022). However, significant challenges persist in addressing educational disparities and gender inequality in SSA. For example, in rural areas, girls often face barriers such as long travel distances to school and traditional gender roles that prioritize household responsibilities over education (Elu 2018). Secondary school enrollment remains low at just 43.6 %, with stark disparities in completion rates across countries like Chad and South Sudan (Sage 2022). SSA also continues to lag globally in tertiary education gender parity, although projections suggest that parity could be achieved by 2034 (Yeboua and Cilliers 2025). These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted interventions to address structural barriers and promote equal access to education across the region.

3.1.2 Healthcare Disparities and Gender Equality

Gender inequalities in healthcare remain a pressing concern in SSA, particularly in adolescent sexual and reproductive health. Chandra-Mouli, Neal, and Moller (2021) emphasized the need for multi-sectoral approaches to address these disparities effectively. Reproductive health issues disproportionately affect women (Melesse et al. 2020), with Tayal (2019) linking these challenges to heightened food insecurity among women in the region. Social norms and limited autonomy further restrict women’s ability to make decisions about their health and economic activities, as highlighted by Abreha and Zereyesus (2020). Decision-making power, a common measure of empowerment in studies, has been empirically linked to improved child health outcomes, such as reduced infant mortality and enhanced nutrition (Abreha and Zereyesus 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated existing inequalities, threatening progress in women’s leadership roles, particularly in Nigeria (Eke, Firth, and Anosike 2024). Eke, Firth, and Anosike (2024) called for organizational restructuring to recognize and amplify women’s contributions during crises. These findings underscore the interconnectedness of healthcare disparities, social norms, and structural barriers to gender equality.

3.1.3 Political Participation and Governance

Despite some progress in countries like Rwanda and South Africa, women remain significantly underrepresented in political leadership across Africa, holding only 21 % of council positions (Yeboua 2024). This underrepresentation limits their influence on policymaking processes that could address gender disparities. Moyo and Dhliwayo (2019) proposed affirmative action measures such as quotas to enhance women’s representation in decision-making roles. They also advocated for equal access to education, support for women in STEM fields, and gender-sensitive curricula to dismantle systemic barriers. Empowering women politically requires more than representation; it also demands financial resources, training, and mentorship to support leadership and entrepreneurship roles (Moyo and Dhliwayo 2019). Dim (2024) found that female heads of government allocate more women-focused foreign aid than their male counterparts in SSA. Interestingly, right-wing leaders contribute more to such initiatives than left-wing leaders, suggesting that political ideology influences gender equality efforts. Workneh (2020) echoed this sentiment by arguing that good governance is essential for poverty reduction, particularly as gender inequality exacerbates poverty in SSA.

However, democratization alone does not guarantee progress in gender equality. Blankenship and Kubicek (2018) highlighted the lack of a clear connection between democratization and improvements in gender equality. Instead, broader governance structures play a critical role in shaping outcomes. The interplay between governance, political ideology, and gender equality significantly influences women’s empowerment and societal progress across SSA.

3.1.4 Gender Gaps in Property Ownership

Broader societal and structural inequalities, as highlighted by Koissy-Kpein (2019) and Burnett (2018), continue to pose significant challenges to gender equality in SSA. One critical area is unequal property rights, particularly concerning land, livestock, and savings assets, which contribute significantly to regional gender inequality (Koissy-Kpein 2019; Burnett 2018). Gaddis, Lahoti, and Li (2018) emphasize the importance of securing women’s property rights to enhance their economic opportunities and decision-making power within households. Women in SSA face significant challenges in accessing agricultural resources due to customary laws and socio-cultural norms (Alwago 2024). These norms also create gender-specific constraints in agricultural decision-making, hindering the adoption of climate-smart practices (Perelli et al. 2024). Addressing these constraints through gender-sensitive rural advisory services can close these gaps and enhance women’s contributions to agricultural productivity in SSA (Agholor 2019). Empowering rural women and marginalized groups is vital for enhancing technological adoption and addressing SDGs related to gender equality, climate action, and hunger reduction (Davies et al. 2020).

3.1.5 Socioeconomic Consequences of Gender Inequality

Gender disparities persist in education and employment, with women facing obstacles in accessing equal opportunities. Van Den Broeck, Kilic, and Pieters (2023) highlight that disparities in education, occupation, and sector significantly contribute to the gender pay gap, impeding progress and hindering poverty alleviation efforts, as Collins (2020) underscores. Addressing these gaps through inclusive policies is crucial for achieving SDGs. Collins (2020) also notes that enhancing women’s economic participation, education, and political leadership are key pathways for reducing extreme poverty in the region. Similarly, Bataka (2020) highlights how globalization offers opportunities for reducing gender inequality by fostering inclusivity and economic participation. Studies suggest that reducing gender inequalities could significantly boost economic growth, particularly in sectors like services (Forkuor, Buari, and Agbenyo Aheto 2019; Ntuli and Kwenda 2019). Projections indicate that closing gender gaps could lead to substantial gains in Africa’s development prospects by 2043 (Yeboua 2024). Macroeconomic policies have also been recognized as crucial factors for achieving gender equality in SSA (Skagerlind 2021). Adekunle et al. (2020) revealed that balancing fiscal and monetary policies contributes to sustainable approaches that promote collective prosperity and support the advancement of regional gender equality. Asongu, Nnanna, and Acha-Anyi (2020) emphasized the critical role of financial access in moderating the effects of inequality on gender economic inclusion.

3.1.6 Summary of Findings

The reviewed studies collectively highlight the multifaceted challenges of achieving gender equality in SSA. While progress has been made in areas such as legal reforms and education access, significant challenges persist across educational, economic, healthcare, and political dimensions. Addressing structural barriers through targeted policies remains crucial for sustainable development in the region. Ensuring equal participation across all aspects of society is vital for sustainable development and inclusive growth in the region. To promote women’s empowerment, integrated strategies are essential. These strategies must address systemic barriers across educational, economic, healthcare, political, and environmental dimensions. By adopting a holistic approach, SSA can move closer to realizing gender equality and unlocking the full potential of its population.

3.2.1 Foundations of Decent Work: Health, Compensation, and ILO Standards

Research on decent work in SSA underscores the need to consider various factors, including, compensation, and alignment with International Labour Organization (ILO) standards. In this region, the unique socioeconomic context requires tailored approaches to ensure effective labor policies and practices (Chungu and Kalula 2021). Amponsah-Tawiah et al. (2023) highlighted the positive relationship between decent work conditions, such as access to healthcare and adequate compensation, and employee mental health in Ghana’s mining industry. Similarly, Atitsogbe et al. (2020) found that in SSA, safe working conditions were related to job satisfaction, while life satisfaction was linked to factors benefiting workers’ families, such as access to health care, adequate compensation, free time, and shared values. These findings support the Psychology of Working Theory and have implications for labor policy, individual and employer practices, and counselling (Atitsogbe et al. 2020). Olabiyi (2022) assesses decent employment’s vital role in poverty alleviation in South Africa, emphasizing the need for alignment with ILO’s standards to tackle unemployment and inequality (Mokofe 2021). Rossier and Ouedraogo (2021) adapted the Decent Work Scale for Burkina Faso to include local factors such as physical safety and social factors. These studies underscore the importance of tailoring decent work frameworks to the specific contexts of SSA countries.

3.2.2 Challenges in Key Sectors: Youth Employment, Informal Work, and the Gig Economy

A significant body of research addresses the challenges of youth employment, the dominance of informal work, and the rise of the gig economy in SSA. A study by Cieslik, Barford, and Vira highlights the persistent challenges of youth unemployment and working poverty in SSA. The region’s growing youth population presents both opportunities and challenges for employment creation. Their research emphasizes the need for locally tailored strategies to address Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 8.6, which targets reducing the proportion of youth not in employment, education, or training (NEET) (Cieslik, Barford, and Vira 2021a). In the gig economy, Cieslik, Banya, and Vira (2021b) examined e-hailing drivers in Lagos, Nigeria, and found that while these platforms can provide higher earnings than traditional taxi services, they often lack formal labor protection. Similarly, Sibi and Du Toit (2022) focused on the domestic work sector in South Africa, particularly the SweepSouth platform, noting that while some workers gain autonomy and flexible hours, many still face low wages and inadequate social benefits. The study by Ayentimi and colleagues also revealed the precarious nature of gig work and the need for policies to ensure fair labor practices (Ayentimi, Ali Abadi, and Burgess 2022).

Danquah, Schotte, and Sen (2021) differentiated between upper-tier informal workers who may transition to formal employment and lower-tier self-employed individuals trapped in poor working conditions. Policies aimed at improving occupational safety, providing social protections such as maternity benefits, and organizing informal workers’ associations are essential for addressing these vulnerabilities (Mramba and Mhando 2020; Sanhokwe and Takawira 2022). This struggle for decent work is further illustrated by Dery and Bisung (2022), who emphasize the health hazards in the informal water sector and the urgent need for policies that ensure safe working conditions. Women dominate the informal economy in SSA, where they face significant vulnerabilities.

3.2.3 Gender Dimensions of Decent Work: Disparities and Inclusion

Gender inequalities permeate the landscape of decent work in SSA, requiring targeted interventions to promote economic inclusion. Women in SSA are disproportionately represented in informal employment, characterized by lower wages and job insecurity, with 90 % of women compared to 84 % of men in such roles (Agholor 2019; Joseph, Nevo, and Nwolisa 2022). This over-representation in informal sectors leaves women particularly vulnerable to exploitation and unsafe working conditions, as informal jobs often lack health and safety protections, social benefits (e.g. paid leave, pensions), and legal safeguards (Joseph, Nevo, and Nwolisa 2022). Their wages are typically lower than men, and the types of work they perform, such as street vending or home-based labor, expose them to physical risks and economic insecurity. Despite small differences in labor force participation rates, significant gender wage gaps persist (The Economic Growth Center 2024). Structural barriers, including limited access to productive resources and gender-blind policies, exacerbate these economic disparities (Agholor 2019; Chigbu and Nekhwevha 2023)

The study by Asongu et al. (2024) evaluates the impact of microfinance institutions (MFIs) on financial access and gender economic inclusion in 44 SSA countries. The findings suggest that a sufficient presence of MFIs is necessary for female bank account ownership to significantly reduce female unemployment, particularly at higher levels of unemployment (Asongu et al. 2024). Similarly, the intersection of gender and decent work is further addressed by Wignall, Piquard, and Joel (2023), who advocate for reimagining Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programs in SSA to combat patriarchal inequalities while aligning with the decent work framework.

3.2.4 Governance, Policy Frameworks, and the Future of Work

The reviewed research also highlights the importance of effective governance, policy reforms, and forward-looking strategies to promote decent work in SSA. Maphiri, Matasane, and Mudimu (2021) discussed the implementation challenges of Sustainable Development Goal 8 within the Southern African Development Community, stressing the importance of job creation and social protection. The intersection of macroeconomic policies and decent work is reflected in Bhorat (2020), who explores how “work fundamentalism” influences policy making in South Africa. Kayode and Agboola (2019) urge a deeper investigation into the applicability of the “decent work” principle within Nigeria’s socioeconomic context, while Abdychev et al. (2018) reflect on the future of work in SSA amid technological, climatic, and economic changes. Ludwig and Webster (2020) proposed a revaluation of what constitutes decent work in light of persistent unemployment challenges.

3.2.5 Summary of Findings

These studies underscore the intricate interplay of factors influencing decent work in SSA. The quest for decent work in the region presents complex challenges and opportunities, as research highlights the significant effects of suitable working conditions on mental health, societal frameworks (such as gender norms), and the welfare of workers in informal sectors. Consequently, these findings are crucial for policymakers, organizations, and stakeholders dedicated to improving employment quality and fostering socioeconomic progress in the area. Addressing inequalities across various sectors requires comprehensive policy reforms and enhanced labor protections, including policies aimed at enhancing formal labor standards, broadening social protections, and acknowledging the agency of workers to significantly influence the creation of a better future for labor on the continent.

3.3.1 SSA’s Progress on Gender Equality

The UNDP’s 2024 Gender Inequality Index (GII) reveals significant disparities, with only 38 % of women being able to make autonomous decisions regarding their sexual and reproductive health, starkly contrasting with over 80 % in Europe. This discrepancy underscores the pressing need for strategic interventions, especially in education, where SSA lags with scores below 90 %, and significant gender gaps in school enrollment persist (UNDP 2024). On the legislative front, the SDG report notes progress with the 56 legal amendments and quota systems across 13 SSA countries aimed at enhancing the gender balance (UN Statistics Division 2024a). This legislative momentum is exemplified by Rwanda, with 54.7 % of women occupying parliamentary seats, while Nigeria lags by just 4.5 % (UNDP 2024). Such political representation is crucial as it correlates with SSA improvements in gender parity, as indicated by the World Economic Forum’s (2024) Global Gender Gap (GGG) Index. The GGG Index has shown gradual advancements since 2006 in the SSA region, despite persistent cultural challenges such as child marriage, and female genital mutilation affecting countless girls and women (UN Statistics 2024a).

Despite these hurdles, there is a growing sense of optimism, with 21 SSA economies ranked among the top 100 globally, as countries such as Namibia, South Africa, Mozambique, Burundi, and Rwanda have made considerable progress in bridging the gender gap (World Economic Forum 2024). Nevertheless, the Economic Participation and Opportunity sector has seen only marginal improvement, with a mere 0.4 % point increase since the previous year, 2023 (World Economic Forum 2024), as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2:

Global Gender Gap Report 2024: Rankings of countries in SSA. Source: Adapted by the authors from the World Economic Forum (2024); Global Gender Gap Report.

The World Economic Forum 2024 report shows optimism about the SSA region, with all countries surpassing 50 % gender parity in workforce participation and many achieving fair representation in key economic roles (World Economic Forum 2024). However, the area of Educational Attainment demands urgent attention, as SSA trails behind it, scoring under 90 %. The prevalent literacy gap and imbalances in school enrollment between genders present substantial hurdles (World Economic Forum 2024). The transition from educational systems to professional venues in SSA draws attention to gender-based discrepancies in skill acknowledgment, emphasizing the critical need for reskilling initiatives and equal economic participation.

The UNDP 2024 report also examined the broader implications of GII by correlating these findings with the Human Development Index (HDI) rankings (UNDP 2024), as illustrated in Figure 3. The GII reveals that considerable variations exist throughout SSA, where some nations, such as Cabo Verde and Mauritius, are ranked relatively well in terms of gender equality, while Nigeria and Somalia demonstrate more prominent inequalities (UNDP 2024). This report is in line with the SDGs’ 2024 report, which uncovers contrasts across SSA: regions such as Eastern and Southern Africa have observed trends; conversely, Western and Central Africa have faced declines in female autonomy. Crucial influences of this divide include varying degrees of wealth, levels of education, and differences between urban and rural living situations (UN Statistics Division 2024a). According to the UN Statistics Division's 2024 SDG report, 33 Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, such as Angola, Ethiopia, and Uganda, are classified as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) due to economic challenges. Sixteen nations, including Botswana, Mali, and Zimbabwe, are recognized as Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) with trade difficulties. Six Small Island Developing States (SIDS) like Cabo Verde and Seychelles face unique challenges due to isolation. Twelve other countries, including Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa, do not fall into these categories but face diverse challenges (United Nations Statistics Division b 2024b).

Figure 3:

Gender Inequality Index (GII) and Human Development Index (HDI) for SSA countries. Source: Adapted by the authors from the UNDP Human Development (2024).

The interconnectedness of gender equality and overall development is further emphasized by the observed trend of lower GII scores associated with higher Human Development Index (HDI) standings, particularly in SSA countries with superior HDI rankings, such as Cabo Verde, Mauritius, and South Africa (UNDP 2024). Nevertheless, the journey toward achieving gender parity by 2030 faces significant challenges, including macroeconomic and geopolitical dynamics that threaten sustained progress (World Economic Forum 2024). Social protection systems are increasingly incorporating gender-sensitive strategies to address inequalities. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries implemented measures targeting women’s economic vulnerabilities in SSA (UN Women 2021). Between 2021 and 2022, seven SSA countries implemented legal reforms aimed at enhancing women’s economic participation, demonstrating growing momentum toward achieving legal gender equality (Tavares and Benetatos 2024). However, gaps remain in integrating comprehensive gender equality frameworks into national social protection strategies (UN Women 2021).

3.3.2 SSA’s Progress on Decent Work

Achieving decent work for all in SSA remains a critical development challenge, as highlighted by both the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the UN Statistics Division’s SDG 2024 report. The region is characterized by high unemployment rates, a predominant informal economy, and ongoing economic and social transitions. Currently, SSA has a labor force participation rate of approximately 62.8 %, with significant variations across individual countries. As shown in Figure 4, while the official unemployment rate stands at 6.3 %, these figures do not fully capture the extensive underemployment and the overwhelming presence of informal employment, which constitutes about 83.1 % of the workforce (ILO 2024). This informality often leads to jobs that lack social protection, job security, and regular income, severely inhibiting broad social and economic development.

Figure 4:

ILO statistics in Africa. Source: Adapted by the authors from the UNDP Human Development (2024).

The alarming statistic that 29.0 % of working individuals in SSA live in poverty (ILO 2024) underscores the urgent need for formalized employment policy frameworks and the implementation of corrective measures to address diminishing adherence to fundamental labor rights (UN Statistics Division 2024c). Moreover, gender inequality in the labor market remains pronounced, with women often confined to lower-paying and less secure jobs, which limits overall productivity and perpetuates cycles of poverty and inequality (ILO 2024). Young women, in particular, face significant obstacles in attaining equitable employment compared to their male counterparts, with higher unemployment rates among young women (27 %) compared to young men (16.9 %) in 2023 (ILO 2024; UN Statistics Division 2024c).

The aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated these challenges, with trade conflicts and increasing debt burdens further complicating the region’s economic landscape (UN Statistics Division 2024c). Despite an initial recovery in global real GDP per capita, SSA faces formidable barriers to economic development, including trade tensions and geopolitical strains that threaten growth prospects and labor conditions (UN Statistics Division 2024c). The region’s demographic structure, marked by a burgeoning youth population, intensifies the issues of youth unemployment and underemployment, with a growing number of young individuals not engaged in education, employment, or training (NEET). This situation increases the likelihood of persistent joblessness among the younger population (UN Statistics Division 2024c).

In summary, the interplay of high informal employment, youth unemployment, gender disparities, and the economic repercussions of the post-COVID-19 era underscores the urgent need for cohesive policies aimed at enhancing labor conditions and fostering sustainable economic growth in SSA.

3.3.3 Global Regional Comparison

In evaluating the Global Gender Gap Index and its sub-indicators, substantial regional disparities and areas of progress in gender equality are evident, which are crucial when compared to SSA (see Figures 5 and 6). The Global Gender Gap Index ranks SSA at 68.40 %, reflecting moderate success toward gender balance when compared to other regions (World Economic Forum 2024).

Figure 5:

Global Gender Gap Index. Source: Adapted by the authors from the World Economic Forum (2024); Global Gender Gap Report.

Figure 6:

Regional Performance 2024 by subindex. Source: Adapted by the authors from the World Economic Forum (2024); Global Gender Gap Report.

While SSA's overall gender parity score of 68.4 % in 2024 highlights progress in narrowing the gender gap, it represents a modest increase of about 0.4 percentage points from the previous year and a total improvement of approximately 5.6 percentage points since 2006 (Alwago 2024; World Economic Forum 2024). This progress is particularly evident in urban areas where women earn 40–46% less than men. However, the average gender pay gap across East and Southern Africa is about 21 % (ILO 2024). Despite these gains, significant disparities in pay and economic participation persist. Ongoing challenges in economic participation and educational attainment continue to hinder faster progress. SSA scores 67.40 % in Economic Participation and Opportunity, higher than Latin America (65.70 %) and Central Asia (66.80 %), but lagging behind Northern America (76.30 %) and Europe (68.00 %). Educational Attainment for SSA is at 86.70 %, indicating room for improvement, especially compared to Europe and Northern America, highlighting the need for investment in education and girls’ access. In Health and Survival, SSA performs well at 97.20 %, surpassing Northern America (96.90 %), yet improved reproductive healthcare is necessary. Political Empowerment stands at 22.40 % for SSA, below Europe (35.70 %) and Latin America (34.00 %), necessitating legislative reforms such as the quota systems mentioned in the UNDP and SDG reports. Overall, while SSA shows potential in health and economic participation, significant efforts are needed in education and political empowerment to achieve gender equality and sustainable progress.

3.3.4 Strategies for Achieving Gender Equality and Decent Work in SSA

A multifaceted strategy is essential to promote gender equality and secure decent work, advancing SDGs by 2030 in SSA. The UNDP (2024) emphasizes enhancing educational opportunities for girls and increasing women’s political representation to foster decent work conditions and sustainable development. The SDG Report 2024 by the UN Statistics Division stresses the importance of economic policies that promote inclusive growth, entrepreneurship, and innovation. Overcoming cultural, economic, and political barriers to gender equality requires collaborative efforts from governments, civil society, and international organizations (World Economic Forum 2024). The UN Statistics Division’s 2024 report highlights formalizing the informal sector and reinforcing labor rights as crucial for creating fair employment opportunities, especially for women and youth. The World Economic Forum (2024) also points to the need for established employment policy frameworks and compliance with fundamental labor rights. The UNDP report urges action on health disparities and initiatives that advance human development and gender equality. Empowering women and youth are critical in the post-pandemic era, making them central to recovery efforts.

The Global Gender Parity Sprint 2030 by the World Economic Forum (2024) underscores cooperative actions that integrate gender parity with industry structures while responding to technological, environmental, and healthcare challenges. This initiative catalyses strategies for economic reform and sustained growth. Aligning the aims of SDGs with established international norms is vital for an inclusive sustainable development agenda. The insights from the United Nations and World Economic Forum can enhance efforts to improve gender equality and decent work in SSA. Proactive endeavours from governments, businesses, and civil society are needed to accelerate transformations, ensuring no one is left behind.

The ILO (2024) recommends a multifaceted strategy, including investment in diverse sectors like agriculture, technology, and services to create job opportunities beyond the traditional industrial base. Educational reforms and vocational training aligned with labour market needs can equip young people with relevant skills. Policies to formalize informal enterprises can enhance employment quality and labour protections. Collaboration among governments, employers, and workers can improve labour policies and the social contract. Empowering women economically can reduce gender disparities and boost economic growth. Coordinated policy efforts, improved data collection, and strong partnerships are essential to address decent work challenges in SSA, supporting economic growth and contributing to social stability and human dignity. Continued attention to labour statistics and development frameworks is crucial for informing policy and measuring progress towards achieving decent work for all (ILO 2024).

3.4.1 West Africa: Nigeria’s “YouWin!” Program

Nigeria’s “YouWin!” program exemplifies a public-private partnership aimed at fostering entrepreneurship and decent work standards, particularly for women. The program provides funding, mentorship, and business training to young entrepreneurs through a competitive process. By offering grants of up to 10 million Naira (approximately $64,000), the initiative has significantly increased women’s participation in entrepreneurship and improved their economic independence. However, challenges such as limited reach to rural areas and the need for sustained funding mechanisms remain barriers to its broader impact. A key transferable lesson from this program is that collaborative efforts between governments and private sectors can effectively foster gender equality in entrepreneurship (Okwa 2022).

3.4.2 East Africa: Rwanda’s Vision 2020 Initiative, Kenya’s M-Pesa, and the Girl Effect Initiative

Rwanda’s Vision 2020 initiative highlights the potential of sectoral diversification to enhance gender equality by investing in industries beyond agriculture. Through targeted investments in information technology and services, Rwanda has significantly increased women’s workforce participation. However, balancing rapid economic growth with equitable resource distribution remains a challenge. The initiative demonstrates that targeted sectoral investments can drive gender-inclusive economic transformation (Kagame 2012).

Kenya’s M-Pesa mobile banking system has been instrumental in providing financial access to women, enabling them to invest in small businesses and achieve greater financial independence. By offering secure transactions without requiring traditional bank accounts, M-Pesa has empowered women economically and facilitated business growth. Despite its success, digital literacy gaps among rural women limit its adoption rates. This case illustrates how leveraging technology can bridge financial inclusion gaps for underserved populations (Kagan 2023).

The “Girl Effect” initiative operates in several East African countries such as Kenya, Ethiopia, and Rwanda. It leverages media and technology to raise awareness among women and girls about their rights while addressing societal norms that hinder their empowerment. Through campaigns like Kenya’s “Tukisonga,” which combines TV dramas, podcasts, and community screenings, the initiative has informed and empowered communities by addressing issues such as reproductive health and economic opportunities. The initiative highlights how media-driven approaches can amplify girls’ voices and create transformative social change (Girl Effect 2024).

3.4.3 Central Africa: The Maputo Protocol

The Maputo Protocol serves as a landmark framework to enhance legal protections against gender discrimination and establish fair compensation practices across African Union member countries. Its adoption has influenced national policy adaptations aimed at improving women’s rights and workplace equity. For example, it has led to legislative changes such as banning child marriage in several countries and broadening access to safe abortion under specific circumstances. Nevertheless, challenges persist due to variations in enforcement across countries, often stemming from differing political will and resource constraints. A key lesson is that regional frameworks like the Maputo Protocol can act as catalysts for national-level reforms when aligned with local contexts (African Union 2019).

3.4.4 Southern Africa: CAMFED and SUNCASA Initiatives

The Campaign for Female Education (CAMFED) operates across Southern African countries such as South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Malawi. It focuses on improving girls’ education and employability through scholarships and mentorship programs. These efforts have resulted in higher education completion rates among girls and increased employability for women. Challenges include addressing systemic barriers like poverty and cultural norms that limit girls’ education. CAMFED demonstrates that holistic support systems combining financial aid with mentorship can lead to sustainable educational outcomes (CAMFED 2023).

The SUNCASA initiative in Johannesburg, South Africa, addresses harmful gender norms by promoting equitable participation in urban nature-based solutions (NbS). Through community-driven training sessions involving marginalized groups, the initiative has increased awareness of gender equity concepts and improved community engagement in NbS governance. However, achieving long-term societal change requires continuous dialogue and community buy-in. This case highlights how community-driven approaches that address cultural norms can lay the foundation for inclusive policy implementation (SUNCASA 2025).

These case studies demonstrate how localized strategies across SSA regions effectively address gender equality and decent work challenges. Key lessons include leveraging public-private partnerships for entrepreneurship development, utilizing technology to bridge financial inclusion gaps, addressing cultural norms through community engagement, and adopting regional frameworks like the Maputo Protocol to influence national policies. Together, these initiatives underscore the potential for scalable solutions tailored to regional contexts to achieve SDGs related to gender equality and decent work environments.

4.1.1 Economic Diversification and Sector-Specific Strategies

In regions with a strong agricultural base, such as East Africa, initiatives can focus on supporting women in agribusiness through access to resources and training programs tailored to enhance productivity and sustainability. Conversely, in West African countries with burgeoning technology sectors, policies could encourage female participation in STEM fields by offering scholarships and fostering mentorship networks.

4.1.2 Cultural and Linguistic Considerations in Education

In multilingual and culturally diverse regions, such as Central Africa, educational policies should incorporate local languages and cultural contexts to make learning more accessible and relevant for women and girls. Programs such as in Southern Africa might emphasize maintaining cultural heritage while promoting gender equality, using local leaders to advocate for change within communities.

4.1.3 Legal Frameworks and Political Will

Addressing gender-based violence and discrimination requires strong legal frameworks; however, their implementation must be adapted to regional needs. For instance, East Africa’s legal reforms can be supported by community-based organizations that facilitate access to justice. In regions undergoing political transitions, like parts of West Africa, international partnerships can provide support and resources to strengthen women’s political representation and influence policymaking.

4.1.4 Infrastructure Development and Access to Services

In rural parts of SSA, such as the Sahel, investments in infrastructure especially in transportation and energy can improve women’s access to markets and economic opportunities. Urban areas, particularly in countries like Nigeria and South Africa, may benefit from digital infrastructure that advances financial inclusion and literacy for women.

To enhance gender equality and improve work environments in SSA, policies must consider the regional variations, ensuring they are sustainable and equitable. This approach leverages SSA’s diversity, builds on local strengths, and addresses specific challenges to foster inclusive growth. These initiatives can significantly advance gender equality and empower women, contributing to broader socioeconomic development across the continent. Achieving these goals requires collaboration among governments, civil society, the private sector, and development partners, aligning local efforts with global Sustainable Development Goals.

4.2.1 Theoretical Contributions

This study significantly enhances theoretical discourse by examining the interplay between gender equality and decent work environments as essential components of sustainable development in SSA. It synthesizes empirical data and theoretical perspectives to create a holistic framework, demonstrating how gender inequality and inadequate work conditions mutually reinforce each other, hindering progress. By contextualizing existing development within SSA’s unique socio-cultural, economic, and political landscapes, the research broadens theoretical models to include relevant variables affecting gender equality and work environments. It advocates for a cross-disciplinary theoretical agenda, integrating insights from gender studies, labor economics, and sustainable development to inform policymaking effectively.

Furthermore, the study identifies gaps in current research, encouraging further exploration of successful intervention models that promote gender equality and improved work conditions. Overall, it merges empirical analysis with theory, providing a nuanced understanding of how these elements collectively drive sustainable development in SSA, and to some extent globally.