Mobile-Assisted Language Learning in a Preparatory Year English Program: Enhancing Motivation and Receptive Skills

1.1 The Present Study

This pilot study investigates the potential of using Duolingo and ReadTheory within the EPP in Saudi Arabia to support the learning of English among preparatory-year students at the CEFR A1–A2 levels under the PF-4M framework. Specifically, it aims to find out whether there is a relationship between using MALL applications and the improvement in motivational level and in reading and listening skills of students, and to find out how students perceive the learning with Duolingo and ReadTheory in the classroom environment. The following research questions shape the investigation:

1. To what extent does MALL integration relate to increased intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among CEFR A1–A2 Saudi preparatory-year learners?

2. To what extent do CEFR A1–A2 learners enhance their receptive language skills (reading and listening) after incorporating MALL tools?

3. How do CEFR A1–A2 learners view the usability, engagement, and perceived effectiveness of MALL tools in the formal classroom setting?

2.1 MALL Overview

MALL is a subcategory of m-learning, which refers to the use of language-learning tools enabled by the mobility of handheld devices. MALL is Computer-Assisted and Web-Based Language Learning in practice, using mobile phone technology to teach languages. This means that applications and multimedia resources for language learning stored on and accessed through handheld devices provide opportunities for language learners to practice and learn a second language in a learner-centered, autonomous, flexible, and self-paced manner. What also differentiates MALL from other learning scenarios is that learners can practice and learn anywhere, at any time, and can progress more naturally and gradually through common themes across demarcated or inter-zones that extend beyond the predefined limits of a classroom, into both formal and informal learning contexts. Students in MALL typically access learning materials outside the classroom via mobile devices, enabling instant feedback and interaction through game theory and content integration, learning management system tools, and social networking tools. All of these tools help build students’ enthusiasm, support students’ autonomy in their paths, and enhance students’ participation. These systems are especially beneficial in disadvantaged environments, as mobile devices have the highest potential and the easiest scalability of reserve resources.

2.2 Adaptive Learning and Receptive Skill Development

Systems such as ReadTheory, which adjust content difficulty in real time based on students’ performance, exemplify the latest trend in instructional practices in Saudi Arabia. Alhumsi et al. (2021) reported that, despite limited adaptability, e-learning apps increased the motivation of Saudi EFL learners and facilitated the use of reading comprehension strategies. Mohammed et al. (2023) concluded that an adaptive stretch-text system significantly outperformed the conventional method in improving reading skills, including vocabulary, cohesion, decoding, and fluency, among university students in southern Saudi Arabia. Okasha (2020) found that EFL students in Saudi Arabia were more responsive to adaptive, strategy-based reading instruction than to traditional teacher-centered reading instruction, underscoring the need for tailored instruction to foster receptive skills. While technology is increasingly used, longitudinal assessments in the Saudi Arabian context remain scarce (Al-Seghayer 2022).

2.3 Motivation in MALL Contexts

In the Saudi context, which has a sociocultural preference for teacher-centered learning (with 90 % of students in the preparatory year preferring this style and 50 % interested in tests) (Alrabai 2017), it can be difficult to implement gamification, which is inherently student-centered. Nonetheless, when linked to cultural scaffolding, it can avoid demotivation, which occurs with traditional drills, and motivate toward a test-oriented system (Alshammari 2022). One study published in 2025 tested the impact of MALL apps on Saudi EFL university students. It concluded that these apps motivated students to improve their language skills, both receptive and productive (Mansor 2025). Engagement and motivation exhibit a bidirectional relationship: sustained engagement bolsters motivation by reinforcing success experiences, while heightened motivation drives deeper engagement through increased effort and persistence. MALL nurtures this interplay via gamification (e.g., rewards for progress) and personalization (e.g., adaptive paths), as outlined in the PF-4M framework’s principles of authenticity and autonomy, ultimately supporting prolonged receptive skill practice (Wang et al. 2024; Althiyabi 2025).

2.4 Relationships and Gaps Leading to Research Questions

The relationship among MALL, motivation, and receptive skills is clarified by frameworks such as PF-4M, which leverage authenticity, personalization, autonomy, and contextualization to direct motivation toward effective learning. By boosting intrinsic motivation through engaging, self-directed activities and extrinsic motivation through feedback, MALL supports consistent practice that leads to receptive improvements – evidenced by Duolingo users at A2/B1 levels achieving reading and listening gains comparable to those achieved over several university semesters (Jiang et al. 2022). Barriers, such as limited tolerance for autonomy, exacerbate these gaps, with few studies examining how MALL-motivation links lead to structured receptive outcomes amid a cultural emphasis on exams (Alshammari 2022).

2.5 Implementation Barriers in the Saudi Educational Context

Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 supports the use of technology in education; however, MALL continues to face numerous obstacles. Many English teachers primarily use lectures and view mobile devices as distractions or as unsuitable for their curricula. Al-Alami and Alhamami (2024) found that many Saudi English teachers do not participate in professional development, which reduces their confidence in using technology for MALL. In government preparatory-year programs, strict curricular rules, high-stakes exams, and limited teaching autonomy make it difficult to implement learner-centered technology. Administrators often focus on memorization and test scores, which discourages the adoption of new teaching methods (Alshammari 2024). There are also practical problems. Rural and remote areas often lack reliable mobile internet or IT support, and in cities, not all students have their own devices, thereby widening the digital divide and limiting access (Al-Seghayer 2022). Many MALL apps are not designed for Saudi learners, as they lack Arabic support or do not align with Islamic values and the national English curriculum, making them less attractive and less likely to be used (Alnujaidi 2021; Alaghbary 2021).

2.6 Theoretical Consideration: The PF-4M Framework

The current study grounded its theoretical underpinnings in the PF-4M developed by Wang et al. (2024). PF-4M revolved around four major themes that underlie the integration of MALL: authenticity, personalization, autonomy, and contextualization. These themes should underlie MALL practices to ensure the quality of teaching. The PF-4M is a novel framework, but its roots extend to prior literature on MALL, which underscores the importance of scaffolding, authentic input, learner independence, and personalized learning in enhancing motivation and engagement. Personalization is evident in apps such as ReadTheory, where the difficulty level adjusts based on students’ performance. Previous MALL frameworks have been criticized for emphasizing technological aspects over pedagogical ones, which may render them unworkable in formal classrooms, particularly in the Saudi EFL context, where instruction is heavily teacher-centered and exam-focused. This is where the PF-4M seems to fill this gap by integrating mobile learning with pedagogical practice. Therefore, it is a fitting framework for investigating the impact of Duolingo and ReadTheory on the motivation and receptive language skills of CEFR A1–A2 level students. In addition, the PF-4M framework mentions the role of content for language learning, mirroring the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model. The framework includes items such as scaffolding, interaction, authenticity, and motivation that are present both in the classroom and the mobile app (see Figure 1). Therefore, the framework was adopted for this study because it provides guidance and integrates relevant content for the study population: low-proficiency Saudi preparatory-year students studying in a strict, exam-oriented environment. This would enhance the quality of instruction and the effectiveness of MALL on the students’ motivation and receptive skills.

Figure 1:

Instructional features supporting the PF-4M framework.

3.1 Participants and Sampling

Sixty Saudi male EFL students taking the foundation level preparatory year English course at an all-male public university in Saudi Arabia participated in the study. The participants’ English proficiency levels ranged from A1 to A2 on the CEFR as measured by the university placement test. A purposive sampling technique was employed to ensure the sample was as homogeneous as possible and confined to a single proficiency band. The inclusion criteria for the sample were that participants be registered in the course for the current semester, have English proficiency at A1–A2, and have access to a mobile device outside the classroom. Although the participants’ teachers were approached to facilitate data collection, they were not considered participants in the study. The sampling technique helped control for individual differences and enhance the study’s internal validity.

3.2 Research Tools and Measures

Four main instruments were used in this study to ensure its originality and reproducibility. A 20-item Language Learning Motivation Scale (LLMS) was developed for this study to assess students’ motivation to learn English. Although the scale items were informed by the principles of the PF-4M model, and more specifically by autonomy and personalization, they were phrased in general terms and referenced mobile learning to elicit more objective responses from students. The LLMS was informed by motivation theory and MALL practice. Students responded to the LLMS items on a 5-point Likert scale. A pilot test of the LLMS was conducted with a convenience sample of 10 EFL students whose demographic characteristics were similar to those of the study participants. The results of the pilot test were used to refine the wording of some items on the LLMS.

A Receptive Skills Test (RST) was purposefully developed for this study to measure the students’ reading and listening comprehension skills at the CEFR A1 and A2 levels. The test consisted of multiple-choice, cloze, and short-answer items. The content and face validity of the RST were established by asking two experienced senior EFL instructors to evaluate it. The RST was administered to the participants at the beginning and end of the intervention program. Participants wrote weekly reflective journals throughout the six-week intervention period to document their reflections on and perceptions of using Duolingo and ReadTheory.

Guiding prompts were provided to participants to reflect on their experiences with the two apps, perceived usefulness, difficulties associated with integrating them into the language class, and potential improvements in their reading and listening skills and motivation. The weekly reflective journals helped to capture the students’ attitudinal, emotional, and experiential changes that the RST might not detect.

A classroom observation checklist was designed for this study to assess participants’ engagement with and interaction with their mobile devices, as well as the extent of integration of the two apps in the EFL classroom. Two trained observers, the researchers, used the checklist to observe one session per week throughout the intervention period. To establish inter-rater reliability, one observer attended each session. Rather than having both observers in the same session, the observers compared their ratings across sessions.

3.3 Intervention and Timeline

The duration of the intervention was six weeks. The participants were introduced to and trained to use Duolingo and ReadTheory. Duolingo was used in class and at home for about 15 min per day to practice vocabulary and sentence structure. ReadTheory was used at home as homework assignments to practice reading comprehension.

3.4 Data Collection

Data were collected over six weeks through a series of simple yet clear steps. During the first week, students were given the RST to assess their reading and listening comprehension skills. Between weeks 2 and 5, students used Duolingo and ReadTheory in the classroom and at home as part of their regular learning tasks. During this period, students’ reflective journals were collected weekly, and researchers observed participants’ engagement with and interactions with their mobile devices. In the final week of the study, the RST was administered again, the LLMS was administered to determine the students’ motivation to learn English, and their reflective journals were collected. Throughout the data collection process, participants were assured that their anonymity and confidentiality would be protected. Informed consent for voluntary participation was obtained from all the participants. They were also informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time. All the data collection procedures complied with the ethical and protocol requirements stipulated by the IRB at the host institution.

3.5 Data Analysis

Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately and integrated during interpretation. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the quantitative data collected from the RST and the LLMS. Paired-samples t-tests were conducted to compare the means of participants’ receptive skills and motivation before and after the intervention. Cohen’s d was calculated to determine the effect size of the intervention on the participants’ receptive skills and motivation. Pearson product-moment correlation was used to examine the strength and direction of association between participants’ post-intervention motivation and improvement in receptive skills, controlling for participants’ initial receptive skills proficiency. The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS (version 27) with an alpha level of 0.05. The quantitative data analysis was complemented by a post hoc power analysis using G*Power (version 3.1) to determine whether the sample size was adequate to detect a medium effect size. A reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyze qualitative data from reflective journals and classroom observation protocols. Initial codes were generated inductively from the data and subsequently refined through several rounds of data review and revision. Inter-coder agreement was achieved on the final set of codes used for data analysis. The data collected from the classroom observation protocols were triangulated with the data collected from the reflective journals to verify and contextualize patterns and themes emerging from the data. Finally, the results of the quantitative and qualitative analyses were integrated through a joint interpretation process that aimed to interpret quantitative findings in terms of students’ perceptions and experiences and observed behaviors.

3.6 Justification and Replicability

The mixed-methods design was adopted in the current study because it enables the collection of novel, nuanced data from students’ perspectives. Combining respondent (LLMS data and diaries) and non-respondent (observational) data offers a more nuanced and authentic picture of the outcomes. Based on a theoretical framework (PF-4M), the study aims to achieve more replicability. Compared with other technocentric models, the PF-4M framework offered a pedagogically oriented framework to support the implementation of educationally sound, contextually relevant m-learning in a Saudi PYP. Each data collection method and tool was aligned to one or more of the PF-4M framework components. This provides an opportunity for other researchers to replicate the current model in other EFL low-proficiency, examination-based contexts. Moreover, the tools used, the time, and the procedures for sampling students were described in detail to enable other researchers to replicate the study in similar EFL contexts with comparable students and contexts. This is evident in the research matrix in Table 1.

3.7 Ethical Considerations

To ensure the rights, dignity, and welfare of the participants, this research was conducted in accordance with ethical research standards. The Institutional Academic and Research Ethics Committee reviewed the research. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval Number is IRB/24 08/051 dated 24/08/2024. The IRB Approval document adheres to the Declaration of Helsinki (2013) and the Institutional policy on the responsible conduct of research. The participants were briefed about the purpose of the study, and written consent was obtained. Respondents’ confidentiality and anonymity were assured, and they retained the right to withdraw from the study at any time. The research adopted non-invasive techniques, including a voluntary anonymous questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The collected data was stored in a locked cabinet, and the key was held solely by the researcher. No personally identifiable information was recorded or reported.

4.1 Motivation Assessment (LLMS)

Learner motivation was assessed using a post-intervention administration of the Language Learning Motivation Scale (LLMS), a 20-item instrument adapted to measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations among EFL learners. The instrument demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with a reliability coefficient of 0.87. All 60 participants completed the LLMS, yielding a 100 % response rate. Responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Mean values greater than 3.0 were treated as indicative of a positive motivational orientation for reporting purposes.

Total LLMS scores ranged from 49 to 80, with a mean score of 64.80 (SD = 3.40). The overall mean motivation score across participants was 3.24 (SD = 0.17). The mean score for intrinsic motivation items was 3.45 (SD = 0.19), while the mean score for extrinsic motivation items was 3.02 (SD = 0.15). No floor or ceiling effects were observed in the distribution of LLMS scores. Mean scores for all individual items exceeded the neutral midpoint of the scale. A correlation analysis indicated a positive association between LLMS scores and RST scores (r = 0.42, p = 0.01). Descriptive statistics for all LLMS items are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2:

Mean Likert scores across the 20 LLMS items. Each item was rated from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

4.2 Receptive Skills Assessment

Receptive language ability was measured using the Receptive Skills Test (RST), a 20-item assessment aligned with CEFR A1–A2 proficiency levels, comprising 10 reading comprehension and 10 listening comprehension items. Prior to the intervention, participants completed the RST pre-test. Pre-test scores ranged from 4 to 13, with a mean score of 8.12 (SD = 2.16) out of a possible 20 points.

Following the intervention period, the same participants completed the RST post-test. Post-test scores ranged from 11 to 19, with a mean score of 15.17 (SD = 1.79). Figure 3 presents the percentage of correct responses for each RST item at pre-test and post-test. Across all 20 items, higher percentages of correct responses were observed at the post-test. Differences in magnitude were noted across items, with some items (e.g., Items 2, 4, 7, 12, and 18) showing larger percentage differences and others (e.g., Items 10, 13, and 14) showing smaller differences. Items associated with lower pre-test accuracy, including Item 1, displayed higher post-test accuracy.

Figure 3:

The proportion of correct responses per item on the Receptive Skills Test (RST) for pre-test and post-test. Each item is scored as correct (1) or incorrect (0).

4.3 Reflective Learner Journals

Over six weeks, a total of 480 reflective journal entries were collected from 60 participants. Thematic coding of the journal data yielded the following frequency counts: Engagement (n = 144), Improvement (n = 138), Usability (n = 108), Motivation (n = 54), Challenges (n = 54), and Recommendations (n = 36). An additional 114 entries were coded as other due to vague or nonspecific content.

Journal entries included descriptive references to learning tasks, application features, and user experiences. Frequently occurring terms related to engagement included references to gamified elements, visual design, feedback mechanisms, and task completion. Some entries described task pacing, repetition of vocabulary items, and audio speed. Other entries recorded difficulties related to understanding instructions, completing tasks independently, or navigating application interfaces. Several entries specifically referenced ReadTheory narrative passages, with learners noting familiarity with or interest in the story content. Responses to the final prompt regarding recommendations of the applications to peers were predominantly affirmative. Table 2 summarizes the frequency distribution of thematic categories identified in the journal dataset.

4.4 Classroom Observations

Classroom observations were conducted weekly between weeks 2 and 5 by two trained observers using a shared 10-item observation protocol (see Appendix D). Each item was rated on a three-point scale (0 = not observed, 1 = partially observed, 2 = fully observed). Mean ratings were calculated separately for Observer A and Observer B for each observation item.

Differences in mean ratings were observed across several items. Observer A reported higher mean ratings for autonomous task use, peer discussion related to application tasks, and careful completion of ReadTheory items. Observer B reported higher mean ratings for teacher-dependent behaviors, including requests for assistance and monitoring of task completion. Both observers reported identical mean ratings for learner selection of ReadTheory passages (M = 1.00). Across observation weeks, both observers reported low mean ratings of self-correction behaviors during initial task attempts. Mean ratings for all observation items are presented in Table 3.

4.5 Mixed-Methods Integration

A convergent mixed methods design was employed, with quantitative and qualitative datasets analyzed separately and subsequently examined together using joint displays and narrative comparison procedures. Quantitative datasets included LLMS scores, pre- and post-test RST results, and correlation coefficients, whereas qualitative datasets consisted of coded journal entries and classroom observation records.

Across datasets, alignment was observed between LLMS item means, RST score distributions, journal themes, and observation frequencies. Statistical analysis of RST scores indicated a significant pre–post difference (t(59) = −12.45, p < 0.001, d = 1.85). Journal themes related to engagement, usability, and improvement co-occurred with higher LLMS item means, whereas observation records documented task interaction patterns across the intervention period. This section reports convergence patterns only; interpretive synthesis is presented in the Section 5.

5.1 ReadTheory and Motivation: Autonomy Within the Constraints of Self-Efficacy

The LLMS findings indicated an overall positive motivational orientation, with higher mean scores for intrinsic motivation than extrinsic motivation; however, item-level variation revealed that motivational experiences were not uniform across learners. Lower mean scores on items related to persistence and confidence in independent learning suggest that autonomy was experienced unevenly, particularly among learners encountering linguistically demanding texts. From a PF-4M perspective, this pattern may be interpreted as partial alignment with the framework’s principles of personalization and autonomy. This interpretation is supported by reflective journal entries in which learners frequently described confusion, fatigue, or difficulty when engaging with challenging reading passages, as well as by classroom observation records indicating inconsistent task re-attempts on ReadTheory. Rather than indicating a limitation of the platform itself, these findings are more appropriately understood as reflecting the challenges faced by CEFR A1–A2 learners when engaging in adaptive, self-directed digital reading tasks, a pattern also reported in previous Saudi EFL research emphasizing the need for structured instructional support at lower proficiency levels (Alshammari 2022; Keezhatta and Omar 2019; Al Zumor and Abdesslem 2022).

5.2 Duolingo and Receptive Skills: Performance Patterns and Engagement Variability

The RST results showed a clear difference between pre- and post-test scores, accompanied by variability across learners and test items, which, when interpreted alongside journal reflections and observation data, suggests diverse engagement trajectories with Duolingo tasks. Learners frequently described Duolingo as accessible and enjoyable, particularly in relation to its gamified structure, immediate feedback, and multimodal presentation, perceptions that align with earlier findings among Saudi EFL learners (Althiyabi 2025). At the same time, qualitative data indicated that engagement levels fluctuated over the intervention period, with some learners reporting boredom or anxiety as tasks became repetitive or assessment-oriented. From a PF-4M standpoint, these patterns may be interpreted as highlighting the importance of instructional mediation and task variation in sustaining learner engagement, rather than attributing performance trends solely to app-based features. Similar variability in learner response to Duolingo across proficiency levels has been documented in prior research, which emphasizes that mobile applications interact with learner characteristics and classroom context rather than producing uniform outcomes (Jiang et al. 2022).

5.3 Dual-Tool Use and Task Rotation: Interpreting Engagement Patterns

The combined use of Duolingo and ReadTheory introduced variation in task modality, cognitive demand, and interactional patterns, which learners explicitly noted in their reflective journals. Comments comparing the two tools suggest that task rotation produced contrastive learning experiences perceived as less monotonous than sustained use of a single application. Observation data further documented shifts in peer interaction and task focus across sessions, which may be interpreted as contextual responses to novelty and task diversity rather than direct outcomes of tool alternation. This interpretation is consistent with prior studies emphasizing the role of task variation in maintaining engagement in mobile-assisted learning environments (Indrawan et al. 2023; Pearlin and Gandhi 2024). Within the PF-4M framework, the two tools appeared to foreground different dimensions, with ReadTheory emphasizing personalization and adaptive feedback, whereas Duolingo emphasized multimodality and gamified interaction. The alternation between tools may therefore be understood as exposing learners to complementary engagement pathways rather than producing additive or synergistic effects in a causal sense (Stockwell and Hubbard 2013).

5.4 Theoretical Implications: Adapting PF-4M for Foundational Learners

The application of the PF-4M framework in a guided Saudi PYP classroom provides insight into how its principles operate when learner autonomy is constrained by proficiency level and digital confidence. Observation data indicating frequent instructor consultation, limited independent task selection, and partial autonomy suggest that foundational EFL learners relied heavily on teacher mediation to navigate digital tasks. These patterns may be interpreted as indicating that PF-4M, which was initially conceptualized in contexts emphasizing learner self-determination, requires contextual adaptation for low-proficiency institutional settings. In particular, the findings point to the importance of distinguishing between inbuilt app-based supports and external instructional scaffolding provided by teachers and peers. Similar concerns regarding assumed levels of autonomy and digital competence have been raised in Saudi EFL research, where mobile learning frameworks have been found to require pedagogical mediation to function effectively with beginner learners (Keezhatta and Omar 2019; Alshammari 2022).

5.5 Practical and Policy Implications

From a practical perspective, the findings suggest that curriculum-integrated use of MALL may have pedagogical value when accompanied by structured instructional support and clear alignment with learning objectives. Previous research has emphasized that teacher mediation plays a central role in helping learners interpret digital feedback, remain engaged, and connect mobile tasks to curricular goals (Phetsut and Waemusa 2022; Alnujaidi 2021). In the Saudi context, where teachers have reported limited training in mobile pedagogy, professional development focused on MALL integration, data interpretation, and learner scaffolding appears particularly relevant (Alshammari and Oudah 2018). At an institutional level, considerations related to app selection, accessibility, and equitable access to devices and connectivity remain salient. Policy-level guidance on the purposeful integration of MALL within EFL curricula may therefore be necessary to ensure that mobile tools are used in ways that align with institutional objectives and learner needs (Alnujaidi 2021).

5.6 Limitations

This pilot study employed a single-group, within-subject design without a control group and therefore does not permit causal inference. The sample comprised 60 male CEFR A1–A2 learners from a single Saudi public university, which limits generalizability across gender, institutions, and regions. The intervention duration was relatively short, capturing only short-term patterns, and motivation was measured post-intervention without a baseline comparison. In addition, qualitative findings relied on self-reported data, which may be influenced by social desirability bias despite triangulation. Finally, the findings are specific to the two tools examined, Duolingo and ReadTheory, and future research should explore other platforms and employ experimental or longitudinal designs to extend the present findings.

5.7 Recommendations

Implications based on this pilot study, several initial implications for the future implementation of MALL in Saudi preparatory-year programs are proposed. However, these suggestions need to be evaluated in small-scale, randomized controlled trials to assess their effectiveness before they can be widely implemented. For example, the suggested pair of tools (ReadTheory and Duolingo) can be implemented in the classroom by rotating between them weekly to maintain students’ interest and manage their workload. Furthermore, these tools are more effective when used as in-class activities rather than as homework, thereby enhancing student engagement and aligning classroom activities with intended learning outcomes. Moreover, teachers need to be trained to monitor students’ performance using tool analytics, provide virtual support, and support students who lack motivation. Additionally, the content of these tools can be customized to accommodate Saudi students’ cultural context and reflect their daily experiences by using bilingual glossaries and topics relevant to their lives. A national assessment framework can be developed to evaluate the extent to which tools align with the curriculum, are usable, and yield educational benefits. Such a framework can help establish partnerships between the governmental and private sectors. It is also important for institutions to continually assess both in-class learning outcomes and app-based data to improve instruction continually. By undergoing a controlled pilot process, MALL can eventually be sustainably integrated into the Saudi educational system, thereby enhancing equity and evidence-based practice.

6.1 Future Research Directions

There are two main directions for future research. First, the use of culturally adapted content in MALL tools (e.g., incorporating topics relevant to the Saudi culture, bilingual glossaries, and Islamic values) should be explored to promote students’ engagement and reduce resistance to using new learning tools in teacher-centered preparatory-year classes. Second, research should investigate how different teacher scaffolding strategies (directive vs. facilitative) and peer-to-peer interaction tools within MALL can promote autonomy and long-term motivation among CEFR A1–A2 EFL students. In sum, MALL tools, when purposefully integrated into the formal classroom environment with teacher mediation, can contribute to the development of autonomous and motivated language learners at the early stages of language learning.