Integrating ethics and democratic principles in chemistry education: a case study

2.1 Materials

The module “Culture of Democracy Through the Didactics of Chemistry” (Stojanovska, 2021) was developed as part of the project “Preparing Future Teachers in the Western Balkans: Educating for Democracy and Human Rights” (European Wergeland Centre, n.d.), funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in collaboration with the Macedonian Bureau for Development of Education. Over the three-year project duration, our goal was to enhance the quality of teacher education across several Balkan countries by fostering exchange and cooperation among universities and higher education institutions focused on teacher training. The primary emphasis was placed on developing novel and innovative teacher education modules, with a strong focus on practice-oriented teaching aimed at fostering citizenship, democracy, and human rights.

This module, designed to integrate democratic principles and values into the education of future teachers, featured specific chemistry content. Utilizing educational resources from the Council of Europe, such as the Living in Democracy Series (Council of Europe, n.d.), an educational resource aimed at promoting democracy and human rights among teachers, parents, and principals, Teaching Controversial Issues (Council of Europe, 2015), a publication supporting and advocating for the teaching of controversial issues in schools across Europe, and the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (Council of Europe, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c), addressing competencies intended for integration throughout the education system, the aim was to promote citizenship, democracy, and human rights. The Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture provides a model for acquiring competencies necessary for effective participation in a democratic society. These competencies for democratic culture (CDC), also known as the butterfly model (Figure 1), are grouped into values, attitudes, skills, and knowledge and critical understanding (Council of Europe, 2018a). They include responsibility, autonomous learning skills, knowledge and critical understanding of the world, valuing human dignity and human rights, and valuing democracy, justice, fairness, equality, and the rule of law (Council of Europe, 2018a).

Figure 1:

The model of competences for democratic culture (Council of Europe, 2018a).

Values are fundamental beliefs that guide individuals’ actions and decisions across various situations. They serve as guiding principles, offering standards for evaluating actions, justifying opinions, and influencing behavior. In the context of democratic culture, specifying the values that underpin competencies is essential. Without these values, competencies could serve different political orders, including anti-democratic ones. Therefore, the values within the Framework model are crucial for defining democratic competence. An attitude is an individual’s overall mental orientation toward someone or something, comprising beliefs, emotions, evaluations, and behavioral tendencies. A skill is the ability to perform complex, well-organized patterns of thinking or behavior adaptively to achieve specific goals. Knowledge refers to the information possessed by an individual, while understanding involves comprehension and appreciation of meanings. “Critical understanding” underscores the importance of actively reflecting on and critically evaluating information in the context of democratic processes and intercultural dialogue, rather than relying on automatic or unreflective interpretation.

The Framework also includes descriptors for each of the 20 competencies within the model, along with guidance on implementing the Framework within education systems (Council of Europe, 2018b). The descriptors clearly indicate one of the three levels of proficiency: basic, intermediate, and advanced.

The module developed as part of the project activities was intended for lower and upper secondary school teachers, combining pedagogical-content knowledge with democratic principles. It included a school practice component, conducted in collaboration with chemistry teachers from local schools. The introduction of democratic content enhances the learning experience and enriches the course’s value by placing studied content within a broader context. PSTs gain insight into additional skills relevant not only in the classroom but also in daily life, encouraging reflection on personal values and the importance of listening to diverse perspectives. Critical thinking holds particular significance in the field of chemistry, and the incorporation of democratic topics further enhances the synergy between these seemingly distinct domains.

2.2 The participants

Implemented for the first time at the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje during the Winter semester 2020/21, the module became a part of the curriculum for chemistry PSTs. Despite challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, lectures and school practice were successfully delivered online using Microsoft Teams. As the first module of its kind in Macedonia integrating chemistry and democracy, it involved six PSTs, current university students at the Institute of Chemistry and two schoolteacher-mentors (one teacher in lower secondary and one in upper secondary school), who were responsible for the school practice of PSTs.

2.3 The lesson plan design and implementation

This semester module adhered to the prescribed curriculum while integrating content on democracy. This study specifically focuses on two sessions of the module for detailed analysis and discussion. Generally, these sessions encompass methodology of teaching chemical content, content dedicated to integrating democratic principles into teaching, and school practice that PSTs implement in lower and upper secondary schools under the mentorship of chemistry teachers. For the purposes of this paper, the analysis will concentrate on the portions of these two sessions that relate to integrating democratic principles into chemistry teaching.

Namely, in the second session (Table 1), the instructor introduced the Heinz dilemma, sparking a discussion on the ethical considerations of violating laws. PSTs then imagined scenarios where such dilemmas arise and discussed them in a group setting, aiming to explore the delicate balance between legal obligations and moral responsibilities (Gollob et al., 2008).

This session covers various teaching methods in chemistry, including the use of conversation during instruction. It can take several forms, including teacher-led conversation, heuristic conversation, catechetical conversation (with precisely defined questions), free-form teaching conversation, spontaneous student questions, and discussion. Introducing controversial issues involves discussion, exchanging opinions and viewpoints, and fostering empathy and a better understanding of others’ perspectives. This represents an excellent opportunity to incorporate such discussions into the session.

During the seventh session (Table 2), PSTs brainstormed ideas from Activity 2.4: “Other People’s Shoes” (Council of Europe, 2015). They formulated questions on controversial topics, comparing and summarizing their findings. In a model class learning activity, the instructor discussed suitable controversial issues for classroom debate and initiated a discussion on the process of discovering a new medicine, encouraging PSTs to consider the factors scientists should contemplate during drug development. PSTs were tasked with identifying and justifying statements in favor of different positions, and also required to write a short essay on adapting discussions or debates to chemistry content, providing a good-practice example in chemistry teaching.

During these sessions, several CDC were planned to be employed, aligning with the Framework’s comprehensive conceptual model of competencies necessary for individuals to function as democratically and interculturally competent citizens. For each competence, descriptors are provided (Council of Europe, 2018b). The descriptors operationalize competencies, serving as valuable tools for curriculum planning, teaching, learning, and assessment. They consist of statements describing observable behaviors that indicate a person has attained a specific level of proficiency in a competence.

The corresponding descriptors for CDC planned in this study are as follows:

For session 2:

CDC1–D1: Argues that human rights should always be protected and respected.

CDC1–D4: Argues that all public institutions should respect, protect, and implement human rights.

CDC3–D13: Expresses the view that all citizens should be treated equally and impartially under the law.

CDC3–D19: Expresses the view that information on public policies and their implementation should be made available to the public.

CDC7–D39: Shows that he/she accepts responsibility for his/her actions.

CDC7–D42: Shows that he/she takes responsibility for own mistakes.

For session 7:

CDC5–D27: Gives space to others to express themselves.

CDC6–D36: Discusses what can be done to help make the community a better place.

CDC12–D70: Listens carefully to differing opinions.

CDC12–D73: Can listen effectively in order to decipher another person’s meanings and intentions.

CDC15–D88: Can express his/her thoughts on a problem.

CDC17–D103 Can encourage the parties involved in conflicts to actively listen to each other and share their issues and concerns.

CDC18–D109: Can reflect critically on himself/herself from a number of different perspectives.

A brief explanation of a specific CDC is provided below.

CDC1: Values human dignity and rights, emphasizing universal and essential protections for a life of dignity, freedom, equality, justice, and peace.

CDC3: Values democracy, justice, fairness, equality, and the rule of law, advocating for equal participation in governance and just treatment for all.

CDC5: Respect involves positive regard for others’ beliefs, opinions, and practices, recognizing their importance and dignity.

CDC6: Civic-mindedness is an attitude about community belonging, solidarity, and active participation in community life, emphasizing responsibility and accountability.

CDC7: Responsibility focuses on reflecting on and being accountable for one’s actions, sometimes requiring the courage to challenge norms.

CDC12: Skills of listening and observing are crucial for understanding and learning from others, paying attention to verbal and non-verbal cues.

CDC15: Linguistic, communicative, and plurilingual skills involve clear, respectful, and adaptable communication in diverse situations.

CDC17: Conflict-resolution skills aim to manage and resolve conflicts peacefully, recognizing power dynamics and fostering mutual understanding.

CDC18: Knowledge and critical understanding of the self involve self-awareness of cultural affiliations, biases, emotions, and motivations, especially in cooperative contexts.

3.1 Implementation of CDC activities for session 2

The instructional session began with the instructor acquainting the students with laws related to the educational process. Following this introduction, students were tasked with listing at least three provisions they believe should be included in the Primary and Secondary Education Act, providing justifications for their selections. This exercise served as a precursor to a broader discussion initiated by the instructor, focusing on whether teachers and students should adhere to the law, alongside other rules and norms, and the underlying reasons for such obedience. In the discussion, the PSTs addressed the justification for fully covering the travel expenses of teachers working in district schools, as well as the regulation of financial support for working with talented students.

Subsequently, the instructor introduced the Heinz dilemma, a classic moral quandary (Letch & €ileli, n.d.). Heinz’s wife was diagnosed with cancer, and the doctor informed him that a new drug could potentially save her life. However, the drug was prohibitively expensive, priced at ten times the production cost. Despite desperate attempts to gather funds, Heinz could only manage to collect half the required amount. When he asked the chemist for a discount or to allow him to pay the remaining amount later, his requests were rejected. Faced with the imminent death of his wife, Heinz broke into the laboratory and stole the medicine.

In the moral dilemma, Heinz faces a challenging decision. Through a plenary discussion, students engaged in a critical analysis of this dilemma, evaluating the reasons for adherence to legal norms. Some argue that he should steal the medicine because saving his wife’s life is more important than obeying the law against theft. However, others suggested that he should not steal the medicine because he might get caught, and stealing is wrong. This scenario raised complex questions about the balance between moral responsibilities and legal duties.

Continuing the discussion on legal obedience, the instructor prompted students to list various reasons why breaking the law might be considered wrong. Students explored a spectrum of reasons, including self-interest, concern for others, and considerations for the well-being of society as a whole.

The class progressed to a more nuanced debate as the instructor considered with the students the possibility of breaking a particular law for a morally justifiable reason. Following this, the instructor introduced an interactive element, prompting students to share their experiences with rule-breaking, using Google Forms to ensure anonymity. Namely, they needed to answer whether they had been in a situation to break a rule, to explain it briefly, what was the reason for it, and what was the outcome.

Two PSTs reported not wearing a mask during the COVID-19 restrictions, one when getting off the bus and the other in the park. However, their outcomes differed, despite the similar nature of the situations: one received a warning, while the other was fined. Another PST confessed to using class funds to buy food while waiting for their sister from school but felt guilty afterward and spent a week collecting money to reimburse the funds. Additionally, a PST shared an incident where they discharged a fire extinguisher in the school corridor out of curiosity, resulting in a fine and disciplinary action. Other examples discussed included crossing the street on a red light and late semester enrollment.

Next, PSTs were then encouraged to imagine scenarios within the educational context where individuals might examine breaking the law or other rules and norms for seemingly good reasons. It was crucial their texts to conclude with a dilemma rather than a predetermined decision. This is essential for framing questions in the classroom that stimulate discussion and critical thinking. The instructor presented a scenario to the students: A pupil from Kruševo is on the way to a chemistry competition in Skopje with their father. Due to a traffic jam, they risk being late. The student, anxious about the competition’s importance, asks their father to drive faster. When they reach Skopje, they encounter a red light at an empty intersection. The dilemma is whether the father should pass the red light or wait. This scenario was designed to encourage discussion about possible solutions, which the students then used to write short stories. In a subsequent plenary discussion, PSTs shared their examples, and the instructor emphasized the distinction between moral responsibilities, which individuals undertake based on their values and beliefs, and legal duties, which are mandated by governmental authorities. A brief summary of their scenarios is given below.

PST 1: “Today, despite being in the clinic all night for stomach pain, I came to work exhausted. I asked the students to work quietly on free activities for the next lesson, but then an inspection occurred, putting me in a difficult situation. Do you think I made the right decision by coming to school? Should I have given them free activities? What do you think the outcome will be, and what would you have done in my situation?”

PST 2: “Sara has two courses left from her first year at university, and she needs to pass them to enroll in the third year. However, if she doesn’t pass, she will fall into a private quota, which her parents cannot afford. To avoid this, Sara plans to cheat on one of the two courses. Do you think her decision is correct? What do you think the outcome of her decision will be?”

PST 3: “One day, the I-3 class agreed to skip a class. The students were divided; some wanted to skip, while others did not. However, they knew that by skipping, they would hurt their dedicated professor, whom they all admired. This created a dilemma: should they skip class or not, considering their professor’s feelings?”

PST 4: “As a student, I was late for class because I stopped to help an elderly woman cross the street. Now, I wonder if I will be excused from class. Do you think my reason for being late is valid? What would be the best way to handle this situation?”

PST 5: “In III-1 class, the teacher instructed everyone to wear the school uniform. While most students complied, Anna showed up in ripped jeans and a plain T-shirt. The teacher noticed and sent her home to change, causing Anna to miss a significant portion of the class. Do you think the teacher’s decision was fair?”

PST 6: “Rushing to an exam, I spotted a kitten trapped in a manhole. I had to decide: should I help the kitten or go to my exam? This situation raises the question: should we treat animals and people the same way in similar situations?”

3.2 Implementation of CDC activities for session 7

Before starting the planned activity, the instructor underscored the importance of discussion in the teaching process, particularly in chemistry classes. Additionally, the instructor emphasized the need for teachers and students to be mindful of each other’s opinions, attitudes, and working conditions. The lesson continued with an emphasis on the impact of science, highlighting that science and technology are omnipresent and aimed at making life easier and the world a better place. However, achieving scientific breakthroughs often requires difficult decisions and sacrifices. The instructor discussed the integration of scientific information with personal values to make important life decisions, mentioning current controversies or dilemmas related to science and society. Topics such as food safety, global warming, climate change, medical knowledge, nuclear energy, and genetic engineering were introduced as potential discussion points in science classes.

Next, the instructor asked the PSTs to consider the factors a researcher needs to study when developing a new drug and the process leading to its ultimate use. To stimulate discussion, the instructor asked the PSTs to respond to the question, “Are doctors allowed and should they conduct experiments on people when creating a new drug?” PSTs were instructed to think for a minute about their answer and choose either “yes” or “no”, with no undecided answers permitted. Following this, the instructor posed another question: “Did you make your decision by reason or by heart?” Once again, PSTs were given a minute to think about their answer. Based on their beliefs, PSTs were divided into four groups: (1) Yes, by reason; (2) Yes, by heart; (3) No, by reason; and (4) No, by heart. PSTs from each group were then given the opportunity to explain their choice and point of view. To encourage empathy and explore diverse perspectives, PST from one group moved to another group to understand their viewpoint (“put yourself in other people’s shoes”). This method enabled PSTs to identify alternative perspectives and learn to appreciate a range of opinions.

Given the ongoing COVID-19 situation, PSTs naturally linked this topic to the development and testing of vaccines. The discussion delved into various aspects such as the duration of testing, potential side effects, the influence of other medications, and the competition among pharmaceutical companies at local, regional, and global levels. A PST with a background in pharmacy elaborated on the complex process of analysis, outlining the manpower and costs involved, the use of laboratory mice, monitoring of side effects, the medication’s effects on organs like the brain and liver, and the need for volunteers for testing.

Regarding PSTs’ beliefs, three PSTs opted for “No, by reason,” arguing against initiating experiments on humans, stressing the importance of voluntary participation. Two PSTs chose “Yes, by reason,” asserting that human reactions can differ from those of animals, and highlighting that medical progress often necessitates human trials, citing the example of diseases like measles. One PST selected “No, by heart,” expressing concerns about the potential life-threatening consequences and expressing empathy for those at risk.

To explore additional activities from the book (Council of Europe, 2015), PSTs were tasked with formulating a controversial issue as a question and writing a short essay on adapting discussions or debates within chemistry (science) content, providing an illustrative example of good practice in chemistry teaching that involves a controversial issue.

Some of their suggestions, as well as a detailed explanation of one of them, is given below.

1. Internet and gaming addiction: Are teens at risk? Should access restrictions be imposed?

   PSTs emphasized that the use of computers and the internet provides numerous benefits but also raises concerns about the growing issue of internet addiction among adolescents. Some of the benefits included access to vast sources of information, educational materials, fascinating books, movies, and opportunities to make new friends worldwide. Improving the communication skills and helping with learning foreign languages were also mentioned. It was noted, however, that young people are increasingly immersing themselves in the virtual world, often to escape from real-life problems or seek entertainment. This trend has led to a significant issue of internet addiction among adolescents in today’s world.

2. Is marijuana use harmful or beneficial to human health? (Should the use of marijuana be legalized?)

   The discussion included PSTs’ opinions that marijuana is harmful to human health, potentially causing serious negative effects on the brain, such as depression and schizophrenia, and disrupting the function of the lungs and heart. Additionally, some PSTs believed that marijuana is beneficial for human health, particularly for people suffering from cancer, due to its content of substances with healing properties.

3. Should vitamins be consumed without consulting a doctor?

   Detailed explanation is given in Table 3.

   Some other topics that could be used in such class discussions include genetically modified organisms (GMO) i.e. modifying the genetic makeup of crops and organisms or the use of chemical pesticides and herbicides in agriculture.

   Throughout the discussion, PSTs expressed their appreciation for engaging in conversations about controversial topics in class. They highlighted the value of hearing diverse opinions and having the opportunity to express their own views. PSTs emphasized the importance of patience, active listening, and empathy during these discussions, noting that they help prevent hasty conclusions and promote a better understanding of others’ perspectives. Overall, PSTs expressed a need for more frequent discussions on various topics as part of their learning experience.

   As home activity, PSTs were required to plan and develop the lesson based on the given task, integrating the competence descriptors.