Learning Chinese and making meaning – ways to develop intercultural citizenship in the foreign language classroom

2.1 Intercultural communicative competence

From Chomsky’s (2015) early work on grammatical competence to Hymes’ (1974) ethnography of communication, where social cultural rules of use are regarded as an integral part of language, the theory of language and communication continues to evolve and expand. Byram’s (2021: 44) model of ICC is a broad framework with educational objectives at its core. Besides linguistic and communicative competences, ICC includes critical cultural awareness. In this model, the definitions of knowledge, attitudes and skills are far beyond linguistic. They encompass “soft skills” that language teaching professionals aim to address (Critchley and Wyburd 2021: 5). ICC allows us to look beyond culturally dominant groups and broadens the spectrum by involving individuals.

ICC can also be described as a dynamic model for three reasons. Firstly, it consists of a list of actions, such as “discover”, “interpret”, and “relate”. It is not merely a list of facts or a knowledge base to be acquired. Secondly, in the knowledge dimension, self and other, individual and society, are not only studied as static states. The interactions and the impact between self and other, as well as between individual and society, are also in the frame. This is reflected in the dimension of attitudes. In “relativising self” and “valuing other”, we see the relational dynamic between the two. Thirdly, knowledge, attitudes and skills are not listed as separate entities but as parts of a whole. In the process of communication as well as in the learning process, they impact each other and work together. ICC presents itself as a flexible guide in the teaching and learning process by not indicating links between dimensions. In the classroom, teachers can adapt the model to suit their context and choose to focus on sets of specific contents from different dimensions. This is echoed in Barrett’s observation that various competences are usually applied in clusters (2021: 21). Teachers can identify and group different strands in the classroom to devise the most appropriate teaching activities.

2.2 Focus on the individual and their emotions

The traditional boundary of national culture has changed due to multidirectional patterns of people movement and the widespread presence of online communication platforms. Learners’ cultural identities can be influenced by many factors. Kramsch notes that globalisation has challenged the “boundaries of nation, language, race, gender, and class” (2011: 354). This aligns with research in the broader context, from managing international teams (Hurn and Tomalin 2013) to the concept of intersectionality in critical race theory (Crenshaw 1989). Work on ICC in the foreign language classroom can be made more effective by using a multi-level approach. We need to explore individuals along with collective characteristics of communities and nations.

Exploring individuals means we must pay attention to the learners’ inner world. Byram (2021: 24) reminds language teachers of Gudykunst’s opinion that psychological factors beyond the psychology of language acquisition need to be considered. This is where psychotherapists’ work can be of help to language teachers. For psychotherapists Gilbert and Orlans, “the purpose of therapy is to reach people… so that they can integrate thinking, feeling and behaviour in a constructive and appropriate manner in order to get their needs met and make effective contact with others” (2011: 107).

The integration of thinking, feeling and behaviour is as relevant in the classroom as in the therapy room. ICC demands that learners, as well as teachers, turn their attention to feeling as well as thinking. Whether it is the “attitudes of curiosity and openness” or the “willingness to suspend belief in one’s own meaning” (Byram 2021: 45), some aspects of ICC, especially those beyond Chomsky’s and Hymes’ theories of language, are entangled in the emotional world.

Kramsch (2009) has long advocated language learning as a subjective experience that involves emotional and embodied dimensions and that foreign languages tap into learners’ memories. Her emphasis on learners’ inner worlds is instrumental in the teaching of foreign languages in what she calls the “post-structuralist” context, where discourse includes “making and communicating meaning and of making that meaning acceptable to others” (2013: 25).

Byram (2021: 43) discusses the importance of attitudinal factors in establishing and maintaining human relationships. The challenge is that learners may be unaware of their long-held value systems, which are triggered when presented with different values and behaviour patterns. The lack of awareness and the discomfort of encountering differences can get in the way of staying open, curious, and willing to relate, thus creating barriers to developing ICC. This is similar to Kramsch’s (2013) view of memories. She believes that language teaching can “capitalize on the personal memories, projections and fantasies of the students” (Kramsch and Gerhards 2012: 76). The foreign language and culture presented to the learners land in the field of their memories. This moment of contact creates emotional ripples. Exploring the emotional reaction creates an opening into the learners’ inner worlds. This exploration can generate awareness and insights and can be a way to turn foreign language teaching into foreign language education. The question then is how, in the classroom, language teachers can capture the “moment of contact” for further exploration.

2.3 The performed culture approach and experiential learning theory

The performed culture approach (Yu 2020) is born out of an effort to move away from the instrumentalist view of language studies and to see language in the broader context of human interactions. It originates in the teaching of East Asian Languages, following the same direction as Byram and Kramsch’s idea of ICC and language learning theories. This pedagogical approach aims to integrate language instruction and culture instruction in the classroom (Yu 2020: 140). Like the ICC model, language and culture, the learners and the teaching and learning process are presented as a cohesive and interactive whole under this pedagogical approach. Walker (2010: 9) states that culture presents contexts, contexts enable meaning, meaning identifies intentions, and intentions reveal individuals. This connects the individual with national culture and sets the scene under which the vision of PCA can be realised in the classroom. As its name suggests, with this approach, learners are expected to perform their roles according to scripts. Each exercise has a specific place, time, and role description as in a play. Teaching evolves around reading the script, rehearsing the script, and performing the script. In this process, language skills and cultural competence are developed as learners experience what it is like to communicate in a Chinese social context (Yu 2020). PCA can be described as three-dimensional. It is not a collection of one-dimensional language items; it is not language embedded in the broader picture of culture; it demands that learners stand up and walk into their roles in a scenario. This brings the transcultural Third Space (Zhang and Jian 2021) into the classroom. Like any experiential exercise, this approach can place a significant demand on the learners, creating powerful impacts.

Learning from a 15th-century Chinese sage who advocated the unity of knowing and doing, Walker applies the principle of experiential learning to the Chinese language classroom by not limiting teaching to the study of scripts on paper but also including performance in scenarios. Gibbs’s (1988) work on experiential learning has highlighted the value of learning by doing and the integration of the theoretical and the practical. The PCA exercises have ensured that the theoretical, here meaning language and cultural rules, and the practical are better integrated by bringing the rules to life in scenarios. As a result, learners learn by “doing” culture, or in Yu’s words, they “learn in the culture” (Yu 2020: 139). Culture is no longer something out there but in the here and now as the learners experience it.

Language teachers are not alone in their attempt to facilitate communication in the Third Space. There is a wealth of experiential exercises developed in the field of counselling psychology. Teacher turned therapist Carl Rogers (1969: 162) believed that students learn best when they are put in a situation where they are directly facing problems, so these problems are relevant and have personal meanings. In these situations, learners naturally engage their feelings, and learning is no longer “from the neck up”, a phrase also used by Kramsch (2010: 28) in her advocacy of the emotional and embodied dimensions of language learning.

2.4 Experiential exercises from counselling psychology

As language theories developed from Chomsky to Hymes and then to Byram’s ICC, counselling psychology also evolved similarly. Psychology expanded from Freudian ideas to the behaviourist approach based on Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning. This was followed by the third force psychology (Maslow 1968) grounded in the humanistic and existential tradition. For this paper, it is under the humanistic framework that language and psychology meet. The humanistic approach tolerates differences and tries to make sense of the experience of being human, either as self or other, as individuals or in groups. Many experiential exercises are used in psychotherapy to uncover feelings and beliefs hidden just below conscious awareness. From the Gestalt chair exercise to body-based exercises that aim to tap into physical sensations, to art therapy, storytelling, and drama therapy, there are many resources that can be adapted for the foreign language classroom. Apart from practising language skills, these exercises can enable learners to explore further how foreign languages and cultures impact them and, therefore, better understand themselves and others. They can help learners identify facilitating factors and barriers in the transcultural Third Space and develop capabilities to operate in it.

In his account of the experiential learning theory, Gibbs emphasises the importance of reflection due to its crucial role in linking theory and practice. He also mentions that the value of reflection is not only in thoughts but also in the feelings that emerge from the process (1988: 14). This is an area that psychotherapists have a great deal to offer to language teachers because of their expertise in creating the experiential context and holding the space where thoughts can be consciously articulated, and emotions can be uncovered and regulated. This process in therapy can generate a sense of well-being by helping clients to reach an “I am OK, You are OK” position (Harris 2012). This is also the position that language teachers are aiming for in developing learners’ intercultural competence.

2.5 Learning Chinese and making meaning

While Walker’s link between context, meaning, intention and individual sets out the theoretical framework, Zhang and Jian’s (2021) work has demonstrated how Chinese language teaching practice can fit into this framework. Furthermore, Jian (2021) approaches the philosophical foundation of language teaching from a Chinese perspective. Byram’s ICC model and the philosophical underpinning of counselling psychology are mainly rooted in the Western tradition. In teaching Chinese to native English speakers, Jian starts from the Daoist and Buddhist end of the dichotomy. He explains the process of moving from “only-one” and “obvious two” to the transcultural “not-two” (Jian 2021: 8) as described in traditional Chinese texts such as Laozi and Zhuangzi. Jian has demonstrated the sameness between the East and the West by digging deeper beyond the obvious.

In the classroom, we can explore cultural outlines and traits. We can also zoom in and examine them in detail (Jian 2021: 14). Jian suggests re-examining well-known outlines of cultural behaviours, such as collectivism and individualism. This can be achieved by exploring the nuance and complexity of culture and how different cultures integrate in the Third Space.

At the risk of being over-simplistic, a presumption can be made that “only one” and “obvious two” mainly concern the mind. The learners need to be exposed to “the other” and notice the differences when learning a foreign language. However, as Jian states, “just recognising differences alone will not lead to productive cross-cultural conversation” and a “constructive and productive Third Space can only be emerging from the state that is beyond “obvious two”…” (Jian 2021: 10). This leads to the second presumption which is that emotional barriers stand in the way of progressing to the “not two” stage. These barriers can be unconscious and call for reflection and discovery. Jian notes the unconscious barriers in intercultural communication (2021: 8) and the importance of the “hearts” in the process of co-constructing a Third Space (2021: 21). Work carried out in counselling psychology can support and enrich the language classroom by enabling teachers to create a context that includes mind and body to explore learners’ conscious and unconscious emotions. This can open the space in the classroom where we can explore our sameness as human beings and the uniqueness of individuals and explore thinking as well as feeling while holding the ultimate goal, which is to learn to live peacefully together. Language teachers have a role to play in this endeavour.

3.1 The context

The curriculum, “Chinese and Inter-Communication Skills”, was developed over a five-year period, and much more work is needed to make it a viable methodology. The individual who developed this curriculum is an experienced foreign language teacher and a qualified counsellor. The context is a highly regarded engineering department with its own dedicated centre for language and inter-communication. The purpose of this centre is to acknowledge communication skills training as a part of engineering education. Engineering work is often international and interdisciplinary, involving people from diverse backgrounds who think from different angles. Engineering teams usually include members from different professions, generations and institutions. With these in mind, the curriculum is designed to make inter-communication skills an explicit part of the teaching and assessment process.

The effort and resources that have been put into this project reflect the belief that foreign language teaching needs to evolve with the changing landscape of the world.

The rapid development of large language models such as Chat GPT means that tools are being developed to assist teachers in conducting many of the traditional tasks in the classroom. Furthermore, technology is not just changing how we work but also means that we are confronted with the question of how humans coexist with machines. According to Kai-Fu Lee (2021), an AI pioneer, the difference between humans and machines is that humans have the ability to love.

Apart from technology, the impact of globalisation deserves continued attention. People who think and behave differently are engaging more deeply than before. This closer contact brings uncomfortable feelings. The critical question is how we, teachers and learners alike, work with this discomfort to emerge as global citizens choosing love over fear and peace over war, as Byram and Barrett envisaged.

It is easy to see the importance of emotional literacy, but developing this capability in the foreign language classroom poses significant challenges. In her assessment of intercultural training tools, Deardorf gave a comprehensive summary of the conditions necessary to ensure the “appropriateness and feasibility” (2020: 3) of using these tools. This curriculum is no exception. Because this curriculum includes emotions, additional support is needed to take care of the welfare of the participants.

3.2 The curriculum

The curriculum details discussed below are for advanced Chinese in an engineering department. It aims to fulfil two purposes. One is to continue improving language proficiency and cultural knowledge by introducing authentic texts and audio-visual materials that cover various topics and genres while ensuring they are related to technology and engineering. The second goal is to introduce the concepts of reflexivity, subjectivity, and intersubjective awareness. The aim is to enable learners to develop an awareness of themselves and others, building the capability to work with differences. The teaching pays attention to the learning process, the learners, and the language. Experiential exercises are used to turn abstract ideas into felt experiences to facilitate behavioural change.

Emotions and the awareness of emotions play an essential part in this process. Learners are encouraged to explore the impact of classroom activities on themselves and articulate how they interpret the relational dynamics during the exercises. This is followed by a reflective journal after each session. The reflective journal can be written in either Chinese or English.

A practical aspect of teaching advanced Chinese to learners who do not major in Chinese studies is worth mentioning here. Usually, there are significant differences in language mastery between learners in the same class. Instead of regarding this as a problem, this curriculum attempts to use the differences to facilitate learning in two ways. First, learners are expected to develop autonomous learning skills and take charge of their learning. At the beginning of the term, each learner sets individualised learning goals based on their language and cultural skills. The goals need to be agreed upon with the teacher and will form the basis for their assessment at the end of the term. Learners are encouraged to use technology, such as online translation tools, to facilitate their learning outside the classroom. In addition to the above, the differences in language mastery between learners provide a rich context for reflection. For example, how do I feel when the discussion is in Chinese, and I cannot keep up with what is happening? What is my go-to strategy when this happens? Many interesting discussions and reflections emerge from differences in language competencies. It forms part of the implicit goal of the curriculum, which is to learn to work with differences.

The learning objectives for the course come in two parts. One part is on language and cultural knowledge and aims to develop and maintain Chinese language competence in all four skill areas. Since this course took place in an engineering department the content is focused on science and technology. The second part of the learning objectives is about reflexivity, subjectivity, and intersubjective awareness. Through the course of study, learners are expected to understand the concept of reflexivity and put it into practice by developing the ability to reflect on their own position and process; to develop sensitivity to others’ positions and processes and to develop an awareness of the relational dynamic in a group and the impact of their own input.

3.3 Sample activities

As discussed in Sections 2.3 and 2.4, various experiential exercises can be used in the classroom. The following are two examples to demonstrate the learning process.

The first is a lesson that took place at the very beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. At the time, the virus was present in Wuhan, and there were a few cases in Italy. The common perception in the classroom was that this was serious, but it was happening out there. The idea that it could become a global pandemic was beyond the imagination of anyone present.

The lesson began with the class reading an article in Chinese on the emerging coronavirus and its potential impact on technological development. The learners then discussed what they thought about this event. One participant said that they had a housemate whose family was in Italy. The housemate had just bought one hundred face masks. The participant thought the housemate was irrational and acting weirdly.

After the discussion, a toy doll was placed on a table at one end of the classroom. The participants were told to regard the toy doll as someone who had just arrived from Wuhan. Each person was to take turns talking to this doll. The speaker would start by standing at the opposite end of the classroom and would speak to the doll for 1 min, and then they would move to the middle of the room to speak for another minute before sitting down next to the doll to speak for one more minute. As each speaker moved closer to the doll, the content and how they spoke changed. Some were reluctant to move beyond the middle of the room because they did not want to get closer to the doll. Others started coughing, the perceived symptom of coronavirus infection, as they sat down next to the doll. While standing in the middle of the room, the participant whose housemate had bought a hundred face masks looked away from the doll and told the class that maybe they too should buy a hundred face masks. As they moved to the middle of the room, closer to the doll, they felt the fear of possible infection and, therefore, could connect to the feeling of their Italian friend whose family was living in the infected area. They then realised that hoarding face masks might not be as weird as they had thought. They had moved from judging to empathising. This exercise is inspired by work carried out in body psychotherapy, which aims to use movement, body parts and different senses to reveal the underlying emotions.

The second example illustrates a way to use experiential exercises to help learners explore relational dynamics. The lesson began by reading an article in Chinese on the structure of a cruise ship. The ensuing task asked three participants to pack one bag for a boat trip. A large suitcase of household items was brought into the classroom for this exercise. It was decided to use everyday household items, such as a book, a packet of sweets, a toilet roll and so on, rather than a specialised learning kit, to make the exercise more real. The participants were given a small bag and were tasked with agreeing on which few items they would pack out of the many in the suitcase. The exercise generated much reflection. Some participants preferred to complete the task quickly. Others took their time. This forced the team to work through their frustrations and recognise the merits and limitations of each approach. There were also reflections on behavioural patterns and misunderstandings. One participant’s intention to respect others’ opinions by not being forthcoming was interpreted by the others as irresponsible and guilt-tripping.

During the exercises, the teacher’s role was that of a facilitator holding the space. The discussions were all led by the participants. When there were disagreements, it was the teacher’s task to regulate the group and ensure each participant could “take space and give space”. The aim was not to diffuse arguments but to achieve “rupture and repair”.

After the class, all participants were expected to write reflective journals, which allowed them to explore their key learning points.

3.4 Assessment

To be awarded credits, learners must have a minimum of 80 % attendance, submit a reflective portfolio, and attend a viva at the end of the course. The marking criteria are divided into two categories in line with the learning objectives. One category is language and cultural knowledge, and the other is the ability to reflect.

The portfolio consists of reflective journals. One of these journals must be a recorded oral presentation in Chinese and one must be handwritten in Chinese. The rest can be word-processed in either English or Chinese. The teacher will give feedback on each journal, and the learners must respond to the feedback before putting all the journals together in the portfolio to be submitted for assessment at the end of the course.

The end-of-course viva allows the learners to demonstrate their understanding of their processes. It starts with a learner presentation on a particular topic covered in the course, followed by a conversation between the teacher and the learner. This is a chance for the learner to show their awareness of their own intellectual and emotional responses to a situation and their capacity to express their own position while being aware and tolerant of other people’s positions and processes. The marking of this part is not about judging the learner’s interpretation but on evidence and quality of reflection.

3.5 Safety and wellbeing

This innovative curriculum includes emotional literacy. Therefore, teachers’ and learners’ mental health and well-being must be considered.

The teacher, who also acts as a facilitator, needs training and experience in managing emotions to deliver this curriculum safely. The learners must be interviewed and assessed for their suitability for the course. Applicants should demonstrate sufficient emotional resilience to enrol in the course. The class size needs to be relatively small so that there is sufficient space for each learner and for the teacher to hold the space safely.

Both teachers and learners need ongoing support throughout the course by having a space to process what happened in the classroom. For the teachers, this is not dissimilar to supervision groups for psychotherapists. Support from colleagues is essential to manage the many issues that might arise. The learners need individual tutorial sessions outside the classroom to deal with possible emotional difficulties and to deepen their reflective process.