Home Medicine Saliva sampling matters for salivary diagnostics of viral infections
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Saliva sampling matters for salivary diagnostics of viral infections

  • Chuixi Kong , Hongxu Chen , Yingye Weng , Xu Zhang , Enzhu Xia , Jiaqi Mao , Chenhao Yao , Xuhua Li , Xubo Qian EMAIL logo and Zhigang Jin EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: October 29, 2025

Abstract

Saliva, a non-invasive biofluid with a variety of biomolecules, has been increasingly recognized as a reliable specimen in the diagnostics of viral infections. Compared to the standard specimens represented by blood and nasopharyngeal swab, saliva is advantageous in non-invasive, simple collection, convenient storage and compatibility with self-testing and large-scale screening. Saliva is an all-round specimen for viral detection as the shedding of viral nucleic acid fragments, antigens and the secretion of virus-specific antibodies are present in saliva. Accordingly, saliva has been widely used to detect a variety of viruses, including saliva-borne, air-borne and blood-borne transmitted viruses. However, challenges also arise as diverse methods during collection, storage and processing of the saliva could lead to discordant results among different studies. It is now aware that the methodology of saliva sampling is critical to the detection of viral biomarkers in the accuracy, repeatability and consistence with the data retrieved from the standard specimens. Therefore, establishing a standardized procedure for saliva sampling is crucial. Here we focus on a dozen factors that may affect the results of salivary diagnostic of viral infections and suggest a set of standardized procedures for saliva sampling, aiming to minimize result variation and benefit the application of saliva in salivary diagnostics of viral infections.


Corresponding authors: Xubo Qian, Department of Pediatrics, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Jinhua, 321000, China, E-mail: ; and Zhigang Jin, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, China, E-mail:
Chuixi Kong and Hongxu Chen contributed equally to this work.

Funding source: the National Key Research and Development Program of China

Award Identifier / Grant number: 2023YFF0611002

Funding source: the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province

Award Identifier / Grant number: LGF22H100005 and LTGY24H100005

  1. Research ethics: Not applicable.

  2. Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individuals included in this study.

  3. Author contributions: All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

  4. Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.

  5. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  6. Research funding: This work was supported by grants from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2023YFF0611002) and the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (LGF22H100005 and LTGY24H100005).

  7. Data availability: Not applicable.

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Received: 2025-05-18
Accepted: 2025-10-13
Published Online: 2025-10-29

© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

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