香港大专生普通话学习中“了”的偏误分析: 对体习得普遍趋势和多语教学的启示
-
姚 水英
姚水英: 博士, 香港理工大学专业及持续教育学院讲师, 研究兴趣主要为形式句法和语义、汉语习得和教学。
提 要
自1997年以来, 香港地区的普通话教育推广得到了极大的发展。不过, 鉴于多方面的限制和原因, 香港学生的所说所写还是无可避免地带着明显的“港式中文”的特点。本文详细分析了香港大专学生普通话学习过程中各种“了”的偏误行为, 包括不需用“了”而误用“了”、该用“了”而未用“了”、“无时态标记句”、与“有”的误用, 离合词中错用“了”等各种情况, 发现以粤语为母语的香港学生在习得普通话“了”时, 主要表现为体标记不足 (underuse) 的错误, 迥异于其他汉语为二语习得者的体标记泛化(overuse)的常见错误。不仅如此, 我们还发现在“两文三语”或者三语 (trilingual)环境下香港学生对于“了”的各种偏误主要是受了学生课堂强势语言英语的“语际迁移”(language transfer) 所致, 而非受学生的母语和最常用的生活用语 --- 粤语的影响, 印证了多语习得中强大的“第二语言地位因素假设” (the L2 status factor hypothesis) 在香港学生的三语习得过程中同样存在。这一有趣的现象无疑为多语环境下的语言教学带来了启示。
Abstract
Following the rapid development of China and Hong Kong’s change in sovereignty in 1997, Putonghua (PTH) was introduced into schools as a selective subject in 1984 and became a core subject in both the primary and secondary school curricula in 1998. Today, 40–80 min of PTH class per week is typically offered to students in primary (grade 1–6) and secondary (grade 7–10) schools regardless of whether Putonghua is adopted as the medium of instruction for teaching the Chinese Language Subject (PMIC). Thus, students in Hong Kong normally receive 6 to 9 or more years of instruction in Putonghua, which typologically shares much in common in syntax with their mother tongue, Cantonese, although the two languages are described as differing greatly in phonology and to some extent in lexicon (Wang, Li (王力). 1986. Fangyanqu de ren xuexi putonghua方言区的人学习普通话 [Putonghua learning in Chinese dialects]. Putonghua congkan《普通话丛刊》[Chinese Language] 1986(2). 6–7; Wong, Pui Kwong (王培光). 1995. Yuyan nengli yu zhongwen jiaoxue语言能力与中文教学 [Language capacity and Chinese education], 131–135. Beijing: Beijing normal university publisher. 北京: 北京师范大学出版社, etc.,.). However, this instruction does not appear to have led to a satisfactory advance in the levels of PTH proficiency as shown in the paper below where what the Hong Kong students said and wrote are called Hong Kong Chinese with distinctive features of grammar and discourse coherence comparing with Modern Standard Chinese (Yao, Jennifer. 2018. The “Aspect Hypothesis” and acquisition of Mandarin LE by Hong Kong college students. In The proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Bilingual Learning and Teaching. Hong Kong: The Open University of Hong Kong). This paper investigates the incorrect usages of the Mandarin aspect marker ‘LE’ by Hong Kong college students. It identifies various types of errors involving LE in PTH production, including the redundant use of ‘LE’, the omission of ‘LE’, the use of sentences without aspect markers, the conflating of ‘LE’ with ‘YOU’ (have) and the incorrect position of ‘LE’ in compounds, and aims to explore the source of negative transfer. In brief, it is found that the majority of instances of incorrect use of the aspect marker LE by Hong Kong college students involved underuse, differing from previous studies on teaching Chinese as a second language, in which the most common error involving aspect acquisition by foreigners was found to be overuse due to L1 transfer (Li 1996; Yang, Suying (杨素英). 2016. “tijiashe”ji “le””zhe”de eryu xide“体假设”及“了”“着”的二语习得[Aspect hypothesis and L2 Acquisition of Aspect Markers-le and -zhe]. Shijie hanyu jiaoxue《世界汉语教学》[Chinese Teaching in the World]. 2016(1). 101–118; Yang, Suying, Yueyuan Huang & Dejin Sun (杨素英、黄月圆、孙德金). 1999. Hanyu zuowei dieryuyan de tibiaoji xide汉语作为第二语言的体标记习得[The acquisition of aspect in Chinese as a second language]. Beimei zhongwen jiaoshixuehui xuebao《北美中文教师学会学报》 [Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association] 34(1). 31–54; Yang, Suying, Yueyuan Huang & Dejin Sun (杨素英、黄月圆、孙德金). 1999. Hanyu zuowei dieryuyan de tibiaoji xide汉语作为第二语言的体标记习得[The acquisition of aspect in Chinese as a second language]. Beimei zhongwen jiaoshixuehui xuebao《北美中文教师学会学报》 [Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association] 34(1). 31–54; Yang, Suying, Yueyuan Huang & Xiuling Cao (杨素英、黄月圆、曹秀玲). 2000. 汉语体标记习得过程中的标注不足现象[The underuse of aspect markers in Chinese aspect acquisition]. 《北美中文教师学会学报》[Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association] 35(3). 87–116; Zhao, Lijiang(趙立江). 1997. Liuxuesheng ‘le’de xide guocheng kaocha yu fenxi 留學生“了”的習得過程考察與分析 [observations and analysis of acquisition of Chinese Le by foreigners]. Yuyan jiaoxue yu yanjiu 《语言教学与研究》 1997(2). 112–124). However, it is very interesting to note that Hong Kong college students’ performance of LE is consistent with the general tendency of aspect acquisition by people learning Indo-European languages, wherein learners tend to unmark the aspect of situation, especially in the initial stage of language learning (Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen & Dudley W. Reynolds. 1995. The role of lexical aspect in the acquisition of tense and aspect. Tesol Quarterly 29. 1–25; Robinson, Richard. 1990. The primacy of aspect---aspectual marking in English interlanguage. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12(3). 315–330; Sharwood Smith, M. 1998. Imperative versus progressive: An exercise in contrastive pedagogical linguistics. In W. Rutherford & M. Sharwood Smith (eds.), Grammar and second language teaching. New York: Newbury House). Typologically, Cantonese is also viewed as a “dialect” within the Chinese branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family and as one of the Chinese dialects, it is reported be close to Mandarin, especially in grammar in typological distance. The aspect system of Cantonese corresponds broadly to that of Mandarin (Matthews, Stephen & Virginia Yip. 2011. Cantonese: A comprehensive grammar. London: Routledge) and the Mandarin aspect marker LE (also well-known as verbal LE) corresponds to the aspect marker ZO in Cantonese. In contrast, English as an Indo-European language with morphological inflections has significant distinctions and similarities in tense and aspect comparing with Chinese languages. In brief, English and Chinese behave differently on tense and aspect, whereas Mandarin LE and Cantonese ZO are very similar. This fact allows us to identify the source of transfer in Hong Kong learners’ L3 Putonghua production. The above tendency of aspect underuse in L3 production by Hong Kong college students thus can be ascribed to their L2, English, indicating that L2 English plays a stronger role than L1 Cantonese in the intermediate and advanced stages of L3 syntax. However, signs of L1 (Cantonese) influence have been widely reported to exist in the lexicon, especially among learners with low Putonghua proficiency and in the pronunciation domain for learners with intermediate and advance proficiency. This observation calls for a comprehensive explanation which poses a challenge to the current theories on cross-linguistic influence in language acquisition. Besides, the findings in this study will improve our understanding of the so-called “Aspect Hypothesis” and they also have positive implications for the PTH education within trilingual contexts in Hong Kong as well as other teaching activities, such as teaching Chinese as a foreign language, where learners’ L2 status has been neglected.
Funding source: 是香港理工大
Award Identifier / Grant number: SP-CHCS-2015-79(1)
Award Identifier / Grant number: SP-CHCS-2018-1138 (I)
About the authors
姚水英: 博士, 香港理工大学专业及持续教育学院讲师, 研究兴趣主要为形式句法和语义、汉语习得和教学。
Jennifer YAO is a lecturer at CPCE of the Polytechnic University of Hong Kong. She had her PhD in linguistics from City University of Hong Kong. Her research interests cover syntax and semantics, Chinese language acquisition and bilingual education.
致谢
本文是香港理工大学专业及持续教育学院资助项目SP-CHCS-2015-79(1)和SP-CHCS-2018-1138(I)成果。同时感谢CASLAR审稿专家的宝贵意见和建议。文中所有纰漏由作者本人负责。
参考文献 (References)
Bardel, Camilla & Laura Sanchez. 2017. The L2 status factor hypothesis revisited. In Tanja Angelovska & Angela Hahn (eds.), L3 Syntactic Transfer Models, new developments and implication. John Benjamins Publishing.10.1075/bpa.5.05barSearch in Google Scholar
Bardel, Camilla & Ylva Falk. 2007. The role of the second language in language acquisition: The case of Germanic syntax. Second Language Research 23(4). 459–484. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658307080557.Search in Google Scholar
Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen & Dudley W. Reynolds. 1995. The role of lexical aspect in the acquisition of tense and aspect. Tesol Quarterly 29. 1–25. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587807.Search in Google Scholar
Chao, Yuen Ren. 1968. A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkeley: University of California Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chen, Qianrui & Wang, Jihong (陈前瑞, 王继红). 2010. Nanfang fanyan “you”ziju de duogongneng fenxi 南方方言“有”字句的多功能分析 [On the M ultifunctionality of you (有 )in Southern Chinese dialects]. Yuyan jiaoxue yu yanjiu《语言教学与研究》[Language Teaching and Research] 2010(5). 47–55.Search in Google Scholar
Cheng, Lisa Lai-Shen. 2010. Cantonese as a tense second language. In: Zwart, J. - W. &M. de Vries (eds.) Structure preserved: Studies in syntax for Jan Koster, 73–79. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.10.1075/la.164.09cheSearch in Google Scholar
Cheung, Hung-nin Samuel (张洪年). 2007. Xianggang yueyu yufa de yanjiu 香港粤语语法的研究(增订版) Cantonese as Spoken in Hong Kong. Revised edn. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Comrie, Bernard. 1976. Aspect: An introduction to verbal aspect and related problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Comrie, Bernard. 1985. Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139165815Search in Google Scholar
De Angelis, Gessica & Larry Selinker. 2001. Interlanguage transfer and competing linguistic systems in the multilingual mind. In Jasone Cenoz, Britta Hufeisen & Ulrike Jessner (eds.), Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives, 42–58. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853595509-004Search in Google Scholar
Falk, Ykva & Camilla Bardel. 2011. Object pronouns in German L3 syntax: Evidence for the L2 status factor. Second Language Research 27. 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658310386647.Search in Google Scholar
Fuller, Janet. 1999. Between three languages: Composite structure in interlanguage. Applied Linguistics 20(4). 534–561. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.4.534.Search in Google Scholar
Grosjean, Franois. 2001. The bilingual’s language modes. In Janet Nicol (ed.), One mind, two languages: Bilingual language processing, 1–22. Oxford: Blackwell.10.4324/9781003060406-39Search in Google Scholar
Hammarberg, Björn. 2001. Roles of L1 and L2 in L3 production and acquisition. In Jasone Cenoz, Britta Hufeisen & Ulrike Jessner (eds.), Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives, 21–41. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853595509-003Search in Google Scholar
Han, Yuhua (韩玉华). 2006. Xianggang xuesheng zai Putonghua shuiping ceshi “shuohua”zhong de jizhong changjian de pianwu fenxi 香港考生在普通话水平测试‘说话’中几种常见的偏误分析 [Analysis of mistakes by Hong Kong examinees in PSC topical speaking]. Yuyan wenzi yingyong《语言文字应用》[Applied Linguistics] 2006(3). 133–140.Search in Google Scholar
Hsu, Grace (许慧伶). Xianggang de yuwen zhengce、zhongyingyu jiaoyu yu qimeng kecheng guihui香港的语文政策、中英语教育与启蒙课程规划 [language and literacy policy, Chinese and English education and curriculums for playgroup and kindergarten in Hong Kong]. Unpublished paper. Available at: http://web. nuu. edu. tw/∼hlhsu/Grace/pdf/Publication/NSC_07. pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Huang, Lillian Meei-Jin & Philip W. Davis. 1989. An aspectual system in Mandarin Chinese. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 17(1). 128–166.Search in Google Scholar
Klein, Wolfgang, Ping Li & Hemriette Hendriks. 2000. Aspect and assertion in Mandarin Chinese. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 18(4). 723–770. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1006411825993.10.1515/9783110549119-005Search in Google Scholar
Li, Charles N. & Sandra Thompson. 1981. Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.10.1525/9780520352858Search in Google Scholar
Li, Dazhong (李大中). 1996. Waiguoren xue hanyu yufa pianwu fenxi外国人学汉语语法偏误分析 [Analysis of mistakes by foreign learners in Chinese Grammar]. 北京:北京语言文化大学出版社. Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Qinghua (李清华). 1983. Tan liheci de tedian he yongfa谈离合词的特点和用法[The characters and usages of Chinese compounds]. Yuyan wenzi yingyong 《语言文字应用》 [Applied Linguistics] 1983(3). 91–100.Search in Google Scholar
Lin, Jo-Wang. 2000. On the temporal meaning of the verbal -le in Chinese. Language and Linguistics 1(2). 109–133.Search in Google Scholar
Lin, Jo-Wang. 2003. Temporal reference in Mandarin Chinese. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 12(3). 259–311. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1023665301095.10.1023/A:1023665301095Search in Google Scholar
Lin, Jo-Wang. 2006. Time in a language without tense: The case of Chinese. Journal of Semantics 23(1). 1–53. https://doi.org/10.1093/jos/ffh033.Search in Google Scholar
Liu, Xunning (刘勋宁). 1988. Xiandai hanyu ciwei “le” de yufa yiyi 现代汉语词尾“了”的语法意义 [The grammatical function of verbal LE in Mandarin]. Zhongguo yuwen 《中国语文》[Studies of Chinese language] 1988(5). 321–330.Search in Google Scholar
Liu, Yuehua, Wenyu Pan & Wei Gu (刘月华、潘文娱、故韡). 2005. Shiyong xiandai hanyu yufa 实用现代汉语语法 (增订版) [Practical grammar of Mandarin]. Updated edn. Beijing: Commercial Press. 北京:商务印书馆.Search in Google Scholar
Liu, Yibin & Lizhen Peng (刘翼斌 彭利贞). 2010. Lun qingtai yu ti de tongxian hudong xianzhi论情态与体的同现互动限制 [On the Interactive Restriction of Coocurrence of Modality and Aspect]. Waiguoyu《外国语》[Journal of Foreign Languages] 33(5). 41–48.Search in Google Scholar
Matthews, Stephen & Virginia Yip. 2011. Cantonese: A comprehensive grammar. London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Peng, Xiaochuan (彭小川). 1996. Guangzhouhua de dongtai zhuci “Zo” 广州话的动态助词“咗” [Perfective aspect marker ZO in Cantonese]. In 胡明扬主编《汉语方言体貌论文集》 [A symposium on Aspect in Chinese dialects, Hu Mingyang eds]. Nanjing: Jiangsu education publisher. 南京:江苏教育出版社.Search in Google Scholar
Robinson, Richard. 1990. The primacy of aspect---aspectual marking in English interlanguage. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12(3). 315–330.10.1017/S0272263100009190Search in Google Scholar
Ross, Claudia. 1995. Temporal and aspectual reference in Mandarin Chinese. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 23(1). 87–135.Search in Google Scholar
Selinker, Larry & Beatrice Baumgartner-Cohen. 1995 Multiple language acquisition: ‘Damn it, why can’t I keep these two languages apart?’ In M. Bensoussan, I. Kreindler & Aogain (eds.), Multilingualism and language learning: 8, 2. Language, culture and curriculum. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.1080/07908319509525195Search in Google Scholar
Setter, Jane, Cathy S. P. Wong & Brian H. S. Chan. 2010. Hong Kong English (Dialects of English). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.10.1515/9780748635979Search in Google Scholar
Sharwood Smith, M. 1998. Imperative versus progressive: An exercise in contrastive pedagogical linguistics. In W. Rutherford & M. Sharwood Smith (eds.), Grammar and second language teaching. New York: Newbury House.Search in Google Scholar
Shi, Dingxu, Jingmin, Shao & Zhiyu, Zhu (石定栩, 邵敬敏, 朱志瑜). 2006. Gangshi zhongwen yu biaozhun hanyu de bijiao 港式中文与标准汉语的比较 [A comparison between Hong Kong Chinese and standard Chinese]. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Educational Publishing Company Ltd. 香港:香港教育图书公司.Search in Google Scholar
Shi, Qisheng (施其生). 1996. Lun“you”ziju 论有字句 [On you sentences]. Yuyan yanjiu 语言研究 [Studies in Language and Linguistics] 1996(1). 26–31.Search in Google Scholar
Shi, Ziqiang. 1990. Decomposition of perfectivity and inchoativity and the meaning of the particle LE in Mandarin Chinese. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 18(1). 95–123.Search in Google Scholar
Smith, Carlota. 1991. The parameter of aspect. Dordrecht: Kluwer.10.1007/978-94-015-7911-7Search in Google Scholar
Soh, Hooi Ling. 2009. Speaker presupposition and Mandarin Chinese sentence final -le: A unified analysis of the “change of state” and the “contrary to expectation” reading. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 27(3). 623–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11049-009-9074-4.Search in Google Scholar
Sybesma, Rint. 1997. Why Chinese verb LE is a resultative predicate. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 6(3). 215–261. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008238319773.10.1023/A:1008238319773Search in Google Scholar
Sybesma, R. 1999. The Mandarin VP. Dordrecht: Kluwer.10.1007/978-94-015-9163-8Search in Google Scholar
Tan, Le-kun (陈丽君). 2012. Tai, huayu yuyan jiechuxia de “you”ziju 台、华语语言接触下的“有”字句 [The Usage of Taiwanese U and Mandarin You as a Result ofLanguage Contact between Taiwanese and Taiwan Mandarin]. Taiwan xuezhi《台湾学志》[Monumenta Taiwanica] 2012(5). 1–26.Search in Google Scholar
Tsao, Fengfu (曹逢甫). 1998. 台湾闽南语中与时貌有关的语词“有”、“ø”和“啊”试析 [On Three Aspect Related Morphemes “U” “ø” “A” in Taiwanese Minnan]. 清华学报 [Tsinghua Journal of Chinese Studies] 28(3). 299–344. https://doi.org/10.2307/3315512.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Hua (王华). (2009). Xiaoju zenghe and xiaoju binyu de shijianxing tezheng [Clause integration and time features in the object clauses]. Hebei shifan daxue xuebao 河北师范大学学报(哲学社科版) [Heibei Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)] 2009(6). 109–116.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Li (王力). 1986. Fangyanqu de ren xuexi putonghua方言区的人学习普通话 [Putonghua learning in Chinese dialects]. Putonghua congkan《普通话丛刊》[Chinese Language] 1986(2). 6–7.Search in Google Scholar
Wong, Pui Kwong (王培光). 1995. Yuyan nengli yu zhongwen jiaoxue语言能力与中文教学 [Language capacity and Chinese education], 131–135. Beijing: Beijing normal university publisher. 北京: 北京师范大学出版社.Search in Google Scholar
Yang, Suying (杨素英). 2016. “tijiashe”ji “le””zhe”de eryu xide“体假设”及“了”“着”的二语习得[Aspect hypothesis and L2 Acquisition of Aspect Markers-le and -zhe]. Shijie hanyu jiaoxue《世界汉语教学》[Chinese Teaching in the World]. 2016(1). 101–118.Search in Google Scholar
Yang, Suying, Yueyuan Huang & Dejin Sun (杨素英、黄月圆、孙德金). 1999. Hanyu zuowei dieryuyan de tibiaoji xide汉语作为第二语言的体标记习得[The acquisition of aspect in Chinese as a second language]. Beimei zhongwen jiaoshixuehui xuebao《北美中文教师学会学报》 [Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association] 34(1). 31–54.Search in Google Scholar
Yang, Suying, Yueyuan Huang & Xiuling Cao (杨素英、黄月圆、曹秀玲). 2000. 汉语体标记习得过程中的标注不足现象[The underuse of aspect markers in Chinese aspect acquisition]. 《北美中文教师学会学报》[Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association] 35(3). 87–116.Search in Google Scholar
Yao, Jennifer. 2018. The “Aspect Hypothesis” and acquisition of Mandarin LE by Hong Kong college students. In The proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Bilingual Learning and Teaching. Hong Kong: The Open University of Hong Kong.Search in Google Scholar
Zhao, Shuhua (赵淑华). 1990. liandongshi zhong dongtai zhuci “le”de weizhi连动式中动态助词“了”的位 置[Aspect marker Le in serial verb constructions]. Yuyan jiaoxue yu yanjiu《语言教学与研究》 [Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies] 1990(1). 4–10.Search in Google Scholar
Zhao, Lijiang(趙立江). 1997. Liuxuesheng ‘le’de xide guocheng kaocha yu fenxi 留學生“了”的習得過程考察與分析 [observations and analysis of acquisition of Chinese Le by foreigners]. Yuyan jiaoxue yu yanjiu 《语言教学与研究》 1997(2). 112–124.Search in Google Scholar
Zhao, Shikai & Jiaxuan Shen (赵世开、沈家煊). 1984. hanyu “Le”zi gen yingyu xiangduiying de shuofa 汉语“了”字跟英语相对应的说法[The correspondence of Chinese Le in English]. Yuanyan yanjiu 《语言研究》[Studies in Language and Linguistics] 1984(1). 114–126.Search in Google Scholar
Zhu, Xinhua, Duanrui Chen & Hongbo Wen (祝新华、陈端瑞、温红博). 2012. Shinianjian xianggang daxuesheng Putonghua shuiping de fazhan bianhua --- jiyu xianggang ligong daxue de shinian kaoshi ziliao十年间香港大学生普通话水平的发展变化——基于香港理工大学的十年考试资料 [The development of Hong Kong college students’ Putonghua proficiency in past ten years — observations from PSC results at Hong Kong Polytechnic University]. Yuyan wenzi yingyong《语言文字应用》[Applied Linguistics] 4. 58–66.Search in Google Scholar
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Situation-bound utterances in Chinese as a foreign language: the effectiveness of the identification task
- CFL learners’ Mandarin syllable-tone word production: effects of task and prior phonological and lexical learning
- Input enhancement improved L2 learners’ production of Chinese classifiers
- 句對閱讀中的連貫作用
- 汉语国际教育专业硕士语法教学能力评价: 基于对五位汉硕生趋向补语教学视频的剖析
- 香港大专生普通话学习中“了”的偏误分析: 对体习得普遍趋势和多语教学的启示
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Research Articles
- Situation-bound utterances in Chinese as a foreign language: the effectiveness of the identification task
- CFL learners’ Mandarin syllable-tone word production: effects of task and prior phonological and lexical learning
- Input enhancement improved L2 learners’ production of Chinese classifiers
- 句對閱讀中的連貫作用
- 汉语国际教育专业硕士语法教学能力评价: 基于对五位汉硕生趋向补语教学视频的剖析
- 香港大专生普通话学习中“了”的偏误分析: 对体习得普遍趋势和多语教学的启示
