Some thoughts on the Proto-Indo-European cardinal numbers
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Allan R. Bomhard
Abstract
This paper takes a fresh look at the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cardinal numbers. Evidence is presented that the earliest form of the number “two” was (in traditional reconstruction) *do- and that the form usually given in the standard handbooks, namely, *duwō/*dwō, was a later borrowing, probably from Northwest Caucasian. Moreover, the earliest form of the number “four” was *Hokh-tho-. It is preserved in the number “eight”, *Hokh-thoH(w), which is a later dual form meaning “two fours”. The forms *meyu- “four”, found in the Anatolian branch, and *kwhéth-wor- “four”, found in the non-Anatolian daughter languages, are both later innovations. Finally, the number “ten”, de-kmo t-, is taken to be an old compound meaning “two hands”, as often suggested in the literature.
Abstract
This paper takes a fresh look at the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cardinal numbers. Evidence is presented that the earliest form of the number “two” was (in traditional reconstruction) *do- and that the form usually given in the standard handbooks, namely, *duwō/*dwō, was a later borrowing, probably from Northwest Caucasian. Moreover, the earliest form of the number “four” was *Hokh-tho-. It is preserved in the number “eight”, *Hokh-thoH(w), which is a later dual form meaning “two fours”. The forms *meyu- “four”, found in the Anatolian branch, and *kwhéth-wor- “four”, found in the non-Anatolian daughter languages, are both later innovations. Finally, the number “ten”, de-kmo t-, is taken to be an old compound meaning “two hands”, as often suggested in the literature.
Chapters in this book
- Prelim pages i
- Table of contents v
- Foreword ix
- Acknowledgments xiii
- Photographs xv
- Works of Harold Crane Fleming xix
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Part I. African peoples
- Geography, selected Afro-Asiatic families, and Y chromosome lineage variation: An exploration in linguistics and phylogeography 3
- A dental anthropological hypothesis relating to the ethnogenesis, origin, and antiquity of the Afro-Asiatic language family: Peopling of the Eurafrican-South Asian triangle IV 17
- African weeks 25
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Part II. African languages – synchronic studies
- Gender distinction and affirmative copula clauses in Zargulla 39
- Riddling in Gidole 49
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Part III. African languages – Classification and prehistory
- Lexicostatistical comparison of Omotic languages 57
- The primary branches of Cushitic: Seriating the diagnostic sound change rules 149
- Erosion in Chadic 161
- On Kunama ukunkula 'elbow' and its proposed cognates in Nilo-Saharan languages 169
- The problem of pan-African roots 189
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Part IV. Languages of Eurasia, Oceania, and the Americas
- Some thoughts on the Proto-Indo-European cardinal numbers 213
- Some Old World experience of linguistic dating 223
- The languages of Northern Eurasia: Inference to the best explanation 241
- Slaying the Dragon across Eurasia 263
- Trombetti: The forefather of Indo-Pacific 287
- Otomanguean loan words in Proto-Uto-Aztecan maize vocabulary? 309
- Historical interpretations of geographical distributions of Amerind subfamilies 321
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Part V. Human origins, Language origins, and Proto-Sapiens language
- Current topics in human evolutionary genetics 343
- A wild 50,000-year ride 359
- Can Paleolithic stone artifacts serve as evidence for prehistoric language? 373
- The origin of language: Symbiosism and symbiomism 381
- Some speculations on the evolution of language, and the language of evolution 401
- The age of Mama and Papa 417
- The millennial persistence of Indo-European and Eurasiatic pronouns and the origin of nominals 439
- General index 465
- Index of languages and languages families 471
- Index of scholars discussed 475
Chapters in this book
- Prelim pages i
- Table of contents v
- Foreword ix
- Acknowledgments xiii
- Photographs xv
- Works of Harold Crane Fleming xix
-
Part I. African peoples
- Geography, selected Afro-Asiatic families, and Y chromosome lineage variation: An exploration in linguistics and phylogeography 3
- A dental anthropological hypothesis relating to the ethnogenesis, origin, and antiquity of the Afro-Asiatic language family: Peopling of the Eurafrican-South Asian triangle IV 17
- African weeks 25
-
Part II. African languages – synchronic studies
- Gender distinction and affirmative copula clauses in Zargulla 39
- Riddling in Gidole 49
-
Part III. African languages – Classification and prehistory
- Lexicostatistical comparison of Omotic languages 57
- The primary branches of Cushitic: Seriating the diagnostic sound change rules 149
- Erosion in Chadic 161
- On Kunama ukunkula 'elbow' and its proposed cognates in Nilo-Saharan languages 169
- The problem of pan-African roots 189
-
Part IV. Languages of Eurasia, Oceania, and the Americas
- Some thoughts on the Proto-Indo-European cardinal numbers 213
- Some Old World experience of linguistic dating 223
- The languages of Northern Eurasia: Inference to the best explanation 241
- Slaying the Dragon across Eurasia 263
- Trombetti: The forefather of Indo-Pacific 287
- Otomanguean loan words in Proto-Uto-Aztecan maize vocabulary? 309
- Historical interpretations of geographical distributions of Amerind subfamilies 321
-
Part V. Human origins, Language origins, and Proto-Sapiens language
- Current topics in human evolutionary genetics 343
- A wild 50,000-year ride 359
- Can Paleolithic stone artifacts serve as evidence for prehistoric language? 373
- The origin of language: Symbiosism and symbiomism 381
- Some speculations on the evolution of language, and the language of evolution 401
- The age of Mama and Papa 417
- The millennial persistence of Indo-European and Eurasiatic pronouns and the origin of nominals 439
- General index 465
- Index of languages and languages families 471
- Index of scholars discussed 475
