Operationalising relational theory of entrepreneurial ecosystems at city-level in Africa, Asia and the Middle East
-
Nadina Iacob
,
Nicolas Friederici
Abstract
Relational theory has been a key advancement in understanding how entrepreneurial ecosystems work. However, the theory has not yet been operationalised through measurement methodologies. This study proposes an indicator-based framework and composite index methodology which builds on relational ecosystem theory. Starting from the premise that common aggregation methods like the arithmetic mean fail to convey the interdependence of ecosystem components (such as complementarity vs. substitution), this study explores the potential of geometric mean as an alternative approach. Our analysis shows that geometric mean methods render more plausible results than simple arithmetic mean; they operationalise complementarity between components more directly by introducing heftier penalties for imbalances in the ecosystem. Additionally, our methodology identifies the less-explored city-level as the most meaningful unit of analysis of entrepreneurial ecosystems. To test the index, we use a unique set of quantitative data for eleven middle-income cities, namely Accra, Amman, Bangkok, Beirut, Bengaluru, Cairo, Jakarta, Manila, Nairobi, Rabat, and Tunis. As most previously conducted measurements have targeted either mature or country ecosystems, our goal is not limited to methodological advancements in measuring entrepreneurial ecosystems, but it also relates to expanding the current status of research to less explored world regions.
7 References
Acs, Z. J. et al. (2017a). ‘The lineages of the entrepreneurial ecosystem approach’, Small Business Economics, 49(1), pp. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9864-8.10.1007/s11187-017-9864-8Search in Google Scholar
Ács, Z. J. et al. (2017b). ‘The Global Entrepreneurship Index’. Washington D.C. Available at: https://thegedi.org.10.1007/978-3-319-63844-7_3Search in Google Scholar
Alvedalen, J. and Boschma, R. (2017). ‘A critical review of entrepreneurial ecosystems research: towards a future research agenda’, European Planning Studies, 25(6), pp. 887–903. doi: 10.1080/09654313.2017.1299694.10.1080/09654313.2017.1299694Search in Google Scholar
Aspen Network of Development Entrepreneurs. (2013) Entrepreneurial Ecosystem Diagnostic Toolkit. Available at: https://assets.aspeninstitute.org/content/uploads/files/content/docs/pubs/FINAL%20Ecosystem%20Toolkit%20Draft_print%20version.pdf (Accessed at: 29 August 2018).Search in Google Scholar
Audretsch, D. B. and Belitski, M. (2017). ‘Entrepreneurial Ecosystems in Cities – Establishing the Framework Conditions’, Journal of Technology Transfer, 42(5). doi: 10.1007/s1096101694738.10.1007/s10961-016-9473-8Search in Google Scholar
Autio, E. et al. (2017). ‘Digital Affordances, Spatial Affordances, and the Genesis of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems’, Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal.10.1002/sej.1266Search in Google Scholar
Brown, R. and Mason, C. (2017). ‘Looking inside the spiky bits: a critical review and conceptualisation of entrepreneurial ecosystems’, Small Business Economics, 49(1), pp. 11–30. doi: 10.1007/s11187-017-9865-7.10.1007/s11187-017-9865-7Search in Google Scholar
Bruns, K. et al. (2017). ‘Searching for the existence of entrepreneurial ecosystems: a regional cross-section growth regression approach’, Small Bus Economics, 49, pp. 31–54. doi: 10.1007/s11187-017-9866-6.10.1007/s11187-017-9866-6Search in Google Scholar
Cerulli, G. and Filippetti, A. (2010). ‘Substitutability vs. Complementarity: Rethinking STI Composite Indicators Building with an Application of Sensitivity Analysis’, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier, 2(6), pp. 7633–7635. doi: 10.1016/J.SBSPRO.2010.05.153.10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.05.153Search in Google Scholar
Cohen, B. (2006). ‘Sustainable valley entrepreneurial ecosystems’, Business Strategy and the Environment, 15(1), pp. 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.428.10.1002/bse.428Search in Google Scholar
Credit, K., Mack, E. A., & Mayer, H. (2018). State of the field: Data and metrics for geographic analyses of entrepreneurial ecosystems. Geography compass, e12380.10.1111/gec3.12380Search in Google Scholar
Fritsch, M. and Wyrwich, M. (2014). ‘The Long Persistence of Regional Levels of Entrepreneurship: Germany, 1925–2005’, Regional Studies, 48(6), pp. 955–973. doi: 10.1080/00343404.2013.816414.10.4324/9781315691985-2Search in Google Scholar
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2018). ‘About – GEM Wiki’. Available at: https://www.gemconsortium.org/about/news (Accessed at: 29 August 2018).Search in Google Scholar
Guzman, J., Stern, S. (2016), ‘Nowcasting And Placecasting Entrepreneurial Quality And Performance’.10.3386/w20954Search in Google Scholar
Isenberg, D. (2011). The Entrepreneurship Ecosystem Strategy as a New Paradigm for Economic Policy: Principles for Cultivating Entrepreneurship, Babson Entrepreneurship Ecosystem Project. Available at: http://entrepreneurial-revolution.com/2011/05/11/the-entrepreneurship-ecosystem-strategy-as-a-new-paradigm-for-economic-policy-principles-for-cultivating-entrepreneurship/ (Accessed: 10 March 2018).Search in Google Scholar
Isenberg, D. J. (2014). ‘What an Entrepreneurship Ecosystem Actually Is’, Harvard Business Review.Search in Google Scholar
Kalla, S. (2009). Geometric Mean. Retrieved Jul 29, 2018 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/geometric-mean, date accessed: 5 August 2018.Search in Google Scholar
KumarSen, P. (1987). What do the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means tell us in length-biased sampling?, Statistics & Probability Letters, Volume 5, Issue 2, March 1987, pp 95–98.10.1016/0167-7152(87)90062-9Search in Google Scholar
Liao J. G., Arthur Berg. (2018). Sharpening Jensen’s Inequality. The American Statistician, pp 1–4.Search in Google Scholar
Mack, E. and Mayer, H. (2016). ‘The evolutionary dynamics of entrepreneurial ecosystems’, Urban Studies, 53(10), pp. 2118–2133. doi: 10.1177/0042098015586547.10.1177/0042098015586547Search in Google Scholar
Mason, C. and Brown, R. (2014). Entrepreneurial Ecosystems and Growth Oriented Entrepreneurship. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/Entrepreneurial-ecosystems.pdf (Accessed: 16 March 2018).Search in Google Scholar
Motoyama, Y. and Knowlton, K. (2017). ‘Examining the Connections within the Startup Ecosystem: A Case Study of St. Louis’, Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 7(1). doi: 10.1515/erj-2016-0011.10.1515/erj-2016-0011Search in Google Scholar
Motoyama, Y. and Watkins, K. K. (2014). Examining the Connections within the Startup Ecosystem: A Case Study of St. Louis. Kansas City. Available at: https://www.kauffman.org/what-we-do/research/a-research-compendium-entrepreneurship-ecosystems/examining-the-connections-within-the-startup-ecosystem-a-case-study-of-st-louis (Accessed: 22 March 2018).10.2139/ssrn.2498226Search in Google Scholar
Neck, H. M., Meyer, G. D., Cohen, B., & Corbett, A. C. (2004). ‘An Entrepreneurial System View of New Venture Creation’, Journal of Small Business Management, 42(2), 190–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2004.00105.x.10.1111/j.1540-627X.2004.00105.xSearch in Google Scholar
Nicotra, M. et al. (2017). ‘The causal relation between entrepreneurial ecosystem and productive entrepreneurship: a measurement framework’, The Journal of Technology Transfer, pp. 1–34. doi: 10.1007/s10961-017-9628-2.10.1007/s10961-017-9628-2Search in Google Scholar
OECD and European Commission Joint Research Center. (2008). Handbook on Constructing Composite Indicators METHODOLOGY AND USER GUIDE. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/std/42495745.pdf (Accessed: 10 March 2017).10.1787/9789264043466-enSearch in Google Scholar
Ortega Argiles, R, Acs, ZJ, Szerb, L, Autio, E & Komlosi, E. (2014). ‘REDI: The Regional Entrepreneurship and Development Index –Measuring regional entrepreneurship’. Publications Office of the European Union. DOI: 10.2776/79241.Search in Google Scholar
Spigel, B. (2017). ‘The Relational Organization of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 41(1), pp. 49–72. doi: 10.1111/etap.12167.10.1111/etap.12167Search in Google Scholar
Spigel, B. and Harrison, R. (2017). ‘Towards a Process Theory of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems’, Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal. doi: 10.1002/sej.1268.10.1002/sej.1268Search in Google Scholar
Stam, E. (2015). ‘Entrepreneurial Ecosystems and Regional Policy: A Sympathetic Critique’, European Planning Studies, 23(9), pp. 1759–1769. doi: 10.1080/09654313.2015.1061484.10.1080/09654313.2015.1061484Search in Google Scholar
Stam, E. & Spigel, B. (2018). ‘Entrepreneurial Ecosystems’, In: Blackburn, R., De Clercq, D., & Heinonen, J. (eds) The SAGE Handbook of Small Business and Entrepreneurship. London: SAGE.10.4135/9781473984080.n21Search in Google Scholar
Startup Genome. (2018). ‘Global Startup Ecosystem Report 2018. Succeeding in the New Era of Technology’. Available at: https://startupgenome.com (Accessed: 16 March 2018).Search in Google Scholar
Sternberger et al. (2018) ‘A new framework to measure entrepreneurial ecosystems at the regional level’. Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsgeographie. pp. 1–25.Search in Google Scholar
The Kauffmann Index (2018). https://www.kauffman.org/kauffman-index (Accessed: 28 August 2018).Search in Google Scholar
World Economic Forum. (2014). Entrepreneurial Ecosystems around the Globe and Early-Stage Company Growth Dynamics – Reports – World Economic Forum. Available at: http://reports.weforum.org/entrepreneurial-ecosystems-around-the-globe-and-early-stage-company-growth-dynamics/ (Accessed: 22 March 2018).Search in Google Scholar
Appendix I : Domains, subdomains, indicators and sources.
DOMAINS/Subdomains | Indicator | Details | Source | Level |
HUMAN CAPITAL | ||||
Talent Pool | ||||
| Workforce constraint | Percent of firms identifying an inadequately educated workforce as a major constraint. % out of Total Firms | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | Country |
| Skilled workers | Proportion of skilled workers. % out of Total Workers. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | Country |
| Total Universities | Total Number of Universities. Total Number per 1.000.000 inhabitants | TopUniversity.com; 4icu.org | City |
| Total Students | Total Number of Students. Total Number per 1000 inhabitants. | TopUniversity.com; 4icu.org | City |
| Tertiary education | Total enrolment in tertiary education (ISCED 5 to 8), regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the total population of the five-year age group following on from secondary school leaving. Total Number as a percentage of the population. | World Bank – Gross enrolment ratio, tertiary | Country |
| R&D Expenditure | R&D as GDP Expenditure. % out of Total GDP. | World Bank – R&D Expenditure | Country |
Labour Market | ||||
| Labour regulation constraint | Percent of firms identifying labour regulations as a major constraint. % out of Total Firms. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | Country |
| Graduates‘ salary | Average salary of recent graduates. Answers to the question: “What is your estimate for the average starting salary of a university graduate in startups in your city?” Total Amount of Money per Month (USD $) | Startup Meter Survey | City |
| Software developers‘ salary | Average salary for software developer. Total Amount per Month (USD $) | Startup Angels | City |
| Female Participation | Labour force participation rate, female (Percentage of female population ages 15+): labour force participation rate is the proportion of the population ages 15 and older that is economically active: all people who supply labour for the production of goods and services during a specified period. % out of Total +15 years old Females / country | World Bank, Modeled on ILO estimate | Country |
| Unemployment rate | Percentage of unemployment people out of Total Graduates (of city population). % out of Total Active Population. | International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT | Country |
| Female Entrepreneurship | Percentage of firms with majority female ownership. % out of Total Firms. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
FINANCE | ||||
Sources | ||||
| Bank loan | Percentage out of Total Startups Surveyed using this source of financing. % out of Total Startups in Survey. | Startup Meter Survey | City |
| Self-financing | Percentage out of Total Startups Surveyed using this source of financing. % out of Total Startups in Survey | Startup Meter Survey | City |
| Business Angel (BA) | Percentage out of Total Startups Surveyed using this source of financing. % out of Total Startups in Survey. | Startup Meter Survey | City |
| Accelerators and Incubators | % out of Total Startups in Survey | Startup Meter Survey | City |
| VC funds | Percentage out of Total Startups Surveyed using this source of financing. % out of Total Startups in Survey. | Startup Meter Survey | City |
| Public funding | Percentage out of Total Startups Surveyed using this source of financing. % out of Total Startups in Survey. | Startup Meter Survey | City |
System | ||||
| Funding Constraint | Percent of firms identifying access to finance as a major constraint. % out of Total Firms. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Loans Rejected | Percent of firms whose recent loan application was rejected. % out of Total Firms. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Collateral Required | Proportion of loans requiring collateral to firms. % out of Total Firms. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Total VCs / PEs | Total number of VCs and PEs legally based in the city. Total Number in the city. | Cbinsights | City |
| FDIs Net Inflows | Foreign direct investments: equity flows in the country (net inflows): Sum of equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, and other capital. Ownership of 10 percent or more of the ordinary shares of voting stock is the criterion for determining the existence of a direct investment relationship. Total Amount Per Year (Billions, Current USD$). | World Bank | Country |
| Total Business Angels | Number of Business Angels per geographic location. Tunisia and Ghana at a country level, Amman, Beirut, Cairo, Nairobi, Rabat at a city level. Total Number per location. | Angel List | City |
STARTUP SCENE | ||||
Hubs | ||||
| Accelerators | Total Number of Accelerators per location. Number per 100.000 inhabitants. | Own Research, Expert Consultation | City |
| Incubators | Total Number of Incubators per location. Number per 100.000 inhabitants. | Own Research, Expert Consultation | City |
| Co Working Spaces | Total Number of Coworkings per location. Number per 100.000 inhabitants. | Own Research, Expert Consultation | City |
| Technology parks | Total Number of Technology Parks per location. Number per 100.000 inhabitants. | Own Research, Expert Consultation | City |
Activeness | ||||
| Startup Events | This indicator captures the answer startups provided to the survey question: “How many networking events are you aware of in your city (per year)“; It does not provide an exhaustive number for number of events occurred, but it does offer a meaningful proxy to assess it. Total Number per week. | Own Research | City |
| Total Startups | Total Number of Startups in a specific city entrepreneurial ecosystem. Total Number per location. | Crunchbase – Organisations | City |
| Funding >5M US-$ | Total Number of startups over 5 million. | Crunchbase Pro | City |
| Funding >1M US-$ | Total Number of startups over 1 million. | Crunchbase Pro | City |
MARKET | ||||
Performance | ||||
| Sales Growth | Real annualized growth in sales (using GDP deflators) expressed as a percentage. % of Real Annualised Growth in Sales. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Employment Growth | Annualized growth of permanent full-time workers expressed as a percentage. % of Annually Employment Growth. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Labour Productivity Growth | Annualized growth in labour productivity where labour productivity is real sales (using GDP deflators) divided by full-time permanent workers. % of Annual Labour Productivity Growth. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Capacity Utilization | City-level data; Capacity utilization based on the comparison of the current output with the maximum output possible using all the resources available. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Trade Balance | External balance on goods and services. % out of Total GDP. | World Bank | Country |
Connectedness | ||||
| Trade openness | Trade openness: imports plus exports as percentage of GDP. % out of Total GDP. | World Bank | Country |
| Tourism | Tourism: international tourism, number of arrivals. Absolute numbers (per year). | World Bank | Country |
| Sister Cities | Total Number of Sister Cities for a specific city. Total Number per location. | World Bank | City |
| Logistic Performance Index | Logistic Performance Index: score ranged from 1.60 to 4.23. Index Score ranged between 1.60 and 4.23. | World Bank, Logistic Performance | Country |
INFRASTRUCTURE | ||||
Transport | ||||
| Overall Quality | Quality of overall infrastructure: value computed by the Global Competitiveness Index. Absolute Index value between 1 and 7. | World Economic Forum | Country |
| Roads Quality | Quality of roads: value computed by the Global Competitiveness Index. Absolute Index value between 1 and 7. | World Economic Forum | Country |
| Railroad Quality | Quality of railroad infrastructure: value computed by the Global Competitiveness Index. Absolute Index value between 1 and 7. | World Economic Forum | Country |
| Ports Quality | Quality of port infrastructure: value computed by the Global Competitiveness Index. Absolute Index value between 1 and 7. | World Economic Forum | Country |
| Air Transport Quality | Quality of air transport infrastructure: value computed by the Global Competitiveness Index. Absolute Index value between 1 and 7. | World Economic Forum | Country |
| Air Transport Capacity | Available airline seat kilometres millions/week: value computed by the Global Competitiveness Index. Absolute value (Millions) per week. | World Economic Forum | Country |
Utilities | ||||
| Water Supply Quality | Quality of water supply: Total Number of Water Shortages in a typical month (without considering rare climate conditions). Total Number of Water Shortages in a typical month. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Electricity Access | Total Number of Days to obtain an electrical connection (upon application). | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Electrical Outages | Total Number of electrical outages in a typical month. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Pollution Index | Pollution Index created by Numbeo using data from multiple sources including WHO. Index value (Absolute Value). | Numbeo | City |
| Co-working Space Cost | Rental cost of a co-working space: average cost for space in an open plan co-working space, per person, per month. Total Amount (USD/person/month). | Co-worker | City |
| Cost of Living | Cost of living: The basket contains the default settings of the numbeo cost of living estimator (for 1 person in the household) plus the monthly rent for a one-room apartment in the city centre. Total Amount (USD/month). | Numbeo | City |
| Electricity Quality | Quality of electricity supply: value computed by the Global Competitiveness Index. Absolute Index Value. | WeForum | Country |
| Utilities‘ Cost | Cost of basic utilities (electricity, heating, water, garbage) for 85m2 apartment/month. Total Amount (USD/month). | Numbeo | City |
ICT | ||||
| Internet Cost | Costs of Internet. 60 Mbps or More, Unlimited Data, Cable/ADSL; Total Amount (USD/month). | Numbeo | City |
| Mobile Internet Cost | Costs – Mobile internet: 1 GB/month, approximate prices based on the pricing scheme of the market leader in each country. Total Amount (USD/1GB). | Own Research | Country |
| Mobile Subscription Cost | Costs – mobile subscription: 1 min. of Prepaid Mobile Tariff Local (No Discounts or Plans). Total Amount (USD). | Numbeo | City |
| Mobile Broadband Pen | Mobile broadband: percentage of total mobile subscriptions with 3G or 4G. % out of total mobile types of connexion. | GSMA intelligence | Country |
| Internet Speed (Down) | Internet speed (download): average speed in city. Mbps. | Startup Meter Survey | City |
| Internet Speed (Upload) | Internet speed (upload): average speed in city. Mbps. | Startup Meter Survey & testmynet.com | City |
| Smartphone Penetration | Smartphone penetration: percentage of people who use a smartphone. % out of Total Population. | Multiple sources | Country |
| Internet Penetration | Internet penetration: percentage of individuals using internet. % out of Total Population. | ITU | Country |
| Prepaid Subscriptions | Prepaid connections: percentage of total mobile subscriptions. % out of Total Mobile Subscriptions. | gsmaintelligence.com | Country |
| Mobile Subscriptions | Mobile-cellular telephone subscriptions /100 pop. Number of subscriptions/100 pop. | ITU | Country |
MACRO | ||||
Political | ||||
| Stability | Political Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism (score between –2,5 and 2,5 a higher score being higher political stability). It measures perceptions of the likelihood of political instability and/or politically motivated violence, including terrorism. | World Bank | Country |
| Effective Governance | Government effectiveness captures perceptions of the quality of public services, the quality of the civil service and the degree of its independence from political pressures, the quality of policy formulation and implementation, and the credibility of the government‘s commitment to such policies. Score ranged between –2.5 and 2.5. | World Bank | Country |
| Regulatory Quality | Regulatory quality captures perceptions of the ability of the government to formulate and implement sound policies and regulations that permit and promote private sector development. Score ranged between –2.5 and 2.5. | World Bank | Country |
| Democracy Level | The Economist Intelligence Unit‘s Democracy Index is based on five categories: electoral process and pluralism; civil liberties; the functioning of government; political participation; and political culture. Score ranged between 1 and 10. | The Economist Democracy Index | Country |
Legal | ||||
| Corporate Tax | Corporate income tax: percent of taxable corporate income. Corporate tax rate (%). | KPMG Corporate income tax tables | Country |
| VAT | Value Added Tax (VAT). Tax % out of Total Value Added. | World Bank Doing Business Report | Country |
| Contract Enforcement | Enforcing contracts: country scores are relative to each other, on a scale from 0 (worst performing country) to 100 (best performing country). Country level. As of 2017. | World Bank Doing Business 2017 | Country |
| Resolving insolvency | Resolving insolvency: country scores are relative to each other, on a scale from 0 (worst performing country) to 100 (best performing country). Relative Score from 0 to 100. | World Bank Doing Business 2017 | Country |
| Business registration (time) | Business registration time: number of days to register a business. Total Number of days. | Own research enpact/ World Bank Doing Business Report* | Country |
| Business registration (cost) | Business registration cost: percentage out of Total Income Per Capita. % out of Total Income Per Capita. | Own research enpact/ World Bank Doing Business Report* | Country |
Crime | ||||
| Violent Crime | Assessment of the likelihood of violent crime ranked from 1 (very low) to 5 (very high) based on the question: “Is violent crime likely to pose a significant problem for government and/or business over the next two years?” Country analysts assess this question on a quarterly basis. Score ranged between 1 and 5. | Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU) | Country |
| Crime as a constraint | Percent of firms identifying crime, theft and disorder as a major constraint. % out of surveyed enterprises. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Informality as a constraint | Percent of firms identifying practices of competitors in the informal sector as a major constraint. % out of surveyed enterprises. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Bribery Depth | Bribery depth: percentage of public transactions where a gift or informal payment was requested. % out of surveyed enterprises. | World Bank, Enterprise Survey | City |
| Corruption Perception | Corruption Perception score: Scores close to 0 are highly corrupt, while scores close to 100 are very clean. | Transparency International | Country |
| Corruption Control | Control of corruption captures perceptions of the extent to which public power is exercised for private gain, including both petty and grand forms of corruption, as well as “capture” of the state by elites and private interests. Scoring system: –2,5 (very weak control of corruption) and 2,5 (very good control of corruption). | Worldwide Governance Indicators | Country |
Appendix II: Eleven cities compared along domains,
Domain scores for eleven cities in detail
City | Domains | |||||
Human Capital | Finance | Startup Scene | Infrastructure | Macro | Market | |
Bangkok | 69.03 | 54.24 | 38.69 | 72.30 | 76.31 | 80.42 |
Bengaluru | 51.55 | 64.95 | 49.30 | 71.51 | 56.71 | 61.25 |
Jakarta | 50.09 | 58.59 | 24.75 | 62.05 | 59.39 | 52.71 |
Manila | 63.31 | 45.05 | 19.29 | 42.26 | 49.63 | 52.61 |
Tunis | 46.76 | 49.91 | 61.15 | 61.21 | 63.01 | 35.62 |
Cairo | 53.87 | 23.67 | 30.84 | 50.61 | 35.34 | 39.34 |
Amman | 42.13 | 49.73 | 43.48 | 67.59 | 65.98 | 42.27 |
Rabat | 44.24 | 15.00 | 24.41 | 66.08 | 50.40 | 38.28 |
Beirut | 47.13 | 60.99 | 65.69 | 17.76 | 33.21 | 38.66 |
Nairobi | 41.04 | 29.55 | 42.34 | 52.31 | 32.69 | 24.28 |
Accra | 50.90 | 23.41 | 26.82 | 34.81 | 59.49 | 38.73 |
Appendix III: SFI index scores (Scenarios 1 and 2).
© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Titelseiten
- Editorial
- Entrepreneurial ecosystems: Founding figures and research frontiers in economic geography
- Research articles
- Entrepreneurial ecosystems as fields: Integrating meso-level institutional theory
- Operationalising relational theory of entrepreneurial ecosystems at city-level in Africa, Asia and the Middle East
- A new framework to measure entrepreneurial ecosystems at the regional level
- Beyond territorial conceptions of entrepreneurial ecosystems: The dynamic spatiality of knowledge brokering in seed accelerators
- Applying the concept of entrepreneurial ecosystems in Estonia
- Book review
- Allan O’Connor, Erik Stam, Fiona Sussan and David B. Audretsch (eds): Entrepreneurial Ecosystems. Place-Based Transformations and Transitions. Springer (2018), 194 рр.
Articles in the same Issue
- Titelseiten
- Editorial
- Entrepreneurial ecosystems: Founding figures and research frontiers in economic geography
- Research articles
- Entrepreneurial ecosystems as fields: Integrating meso-level institutional theory
- Operationalising relational theory of entrepreneurial ecosystems at city-level in Africa, Asia and the Middle East
- A new framework to measure entrepreneurial ecosystems at the regional level
- Beyond territorial conceptions of entrepreneurial ecosystems: The dynamic spatiality of knowledge brokering in seed accelerators
- Applying the concept of entrepreneurial ecosystems in Estonia
- Book review
- Allan O’Connor, Erik Stam, Fiona Sussan and David B. Audretsch (eds): Entrepreneurial Ecosystems. Place-Based Transformations and Transitions. Springer (2018), 194 рр.
