Abstract
Based on data from extraction, embedded V2, and complementizer stacking, this paper proposes a cP/CP-analysis of CP-recursion in Danish. Because extraction can be shown to be possible from relative clauses, wh-islands, and adverbial clauses, and given that long extraction is successive-cyclic, an extra specifier position has to be available as an escape hatch. Consequently, such extractions require a CP-recursion analysis, as has been argued for embedded V2 and for complementizer stacking. Given that CP-recursion in embedded V2 clauses does not allow extraction, whereas other types of CP-recursion do, we suggest that embedded V2 is fundamentally different, in that main clause V2 and embedded V2 involve a CP (“big CP”), whereas all other clausal projections above IP are instances of cP (“little cP”). The topmost “little” c° has an occurrence feature that enables extraction but bars spell-out of its specifier.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Theresa Biberauer, Elisabet Engdahl, Constantin Freitag, Hans-Martin Gärtner, Fredrik Heinat, Johannes Kizach, Filippa Lindahl, Doug Saddy, Anna-Lena Wiklund, Johanna Wood, and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and suggestions as well as to participants in the Grammar in Focus workshop series at the University of Lund, February 2012 and 2016, participants in Grammatikseminar, University of Lund, January 2013, participants in the SyntaxLab talk series at the University of Cambridge, May 2016, and participants in the DGfS conference in Konstanz, February 2016. The work presented here was partly supported by Forskningsrådet for Kultur og Kommunikation (Danish Research Council for Culture and Communication).
References
Allwood, J. 1976. The complex NP constraint as a non-universal rule and some semantic factors influencing the acceptability of Swedish sentences which violate the CNPC. In J. Stillings (ed.), University of Massachusetts occasional papers in Linguistics II, Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts.Search in Google Scholar
Allwood, J. 1982. The complex NP constraints in Swedish. In E. Engdahl & E. Ejerhed (eds.), Readings on unbounded dependencies in Scandinavian languages, Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International.Search in Google Scholar
Andersson, L.-G. 1975. Form and function of subordinate clauses. University of Gothenburg Ph.D. dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Antomo, M & M. Steinbach. 2010. Desintegration und Interpretation: “Weil”-V2-Sätze an der Schnittstelle zwischen Syntax, Semantik und Pragmatik. Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft 29. 1–37.10.1515/zfsw.2010.001Search in Google Scholar
Bentzen, K., G. H. Hrafnbjargarson, Þ. Hróarsdóttir & A.-L. Wiklund. 2007. Extracting from V2. Working papers in Scandinavian syntax 79. 119–128.Search in Google Scholar
Boeckx, C. 2012. Syntactic Islands. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139022415Search in Google Scholar
Boeckx, C. & K. K. Grohmann. 2007. Remark: Putting phases in perspective. Syntax 10(2). 204–222.10.1111/j.1467-9612.2007.00098.xSearch in Google Scholar
Brandtler, J. 2008. On the structure of Swedish subordinate clauses. Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax 81. 79–97.Search in Google Scholar
Brandtler, J. 2010. The evaluability hypothesis: The syntax and semantics of polarity item licensing in Swedish, Lundastudier i nordisk språkvetenskap, serie A, Lunds universitet Ph.D.-dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Branigan, P. 1996. Verb-second and the A-bar syntax of subjects. Studia Linguistica 50. 50–79.10.1111/j.1467-9582.1996.tb00343.xSearch in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 1973. Conditions on transformations. In S. Anderson & P. Kiparsky (eds.), A festschrift for Morris Halle, 232–286. New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston.Search in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 1977. On Wh-movement. In P. Culicover, T. Wasow & A. Akmajian (eds.), Formal syntax, 71–132. New York: Academic Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 1982. Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding. Linguistic Inquiry Monograph 6. Cambrige, MA: MIT PressSearch in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 1986. Barriers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 1995. The minimalist program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 2000. Minimalist inquiries. In R. Martin, D. Michaels & J. Uriagereka (eds.), Step by step, 89–155. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 2001. Derivation by phase. In M. Kenstowicz (ed.), Ken hale: A life in language, 1–50. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 2005. Three factors in language design. Linguistic Inquiry 36(1). 1–22.10.1162/0024389052993655Search in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 2006. Approaching UG from below. Ms, MIT.Search in Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. & H. Lasnik. 1993. The theory of principles and parameters. In J. Jacobs (ed.), Syntax: An international handbook of contemporary research, vol. 1, 506–569. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110095869.1.9.506Search in Google Scholar
Christensen, K. R., J. Kizach & A. M. Nyvad. 2013b. The processing of syntactic islands – an fMRI study. Journal of Neurolinguistics 26(2). 239–251.10.1016/j.jneuroling.2012.08.002Search in Google Scholar
Christensen, K. R., J. Kizach & A. M. Nyvad. 2012. Erratum to: Escape from the Island: Grammaticality and (Reduced) acceptability of Wh-island violations in Danish. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 41(6). 487–487. doi:10.1007/s10936-012-9225-3.Search in Google Scholar
Christensen, K. R., J. Kizach & A. M. Nyvad. 2013a. Escape from the island: Grammaticality and (reduced) acceptability of wh-island violations in Danish. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 42(1). 51–70.10.1007/s10936-012-9210-xSearch in Google Scholar
Christensen, K. R. & A. M. Nyvad. 2014. On the nature of escapable relative islands. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 37(1). 29–45.10.1017/S0332586514000055Search in Google Scholar
Chung, S. & J. McCloskey. 1987. Government, barriers and small clauses in modern Irish. Linguistic Inquiry 18. 173–237.Search in Google Scholar
Crain, S. & R. Thornton. 1998. Investigations in Universal Grammar: A guide to experiments on the acquisition of syntax and semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Culicover, P. W. 1992. The adverb effect: Evidence against ECP accounts of the that-t effect. NELS 23(1). 97–111. Amherst: GLSA, University of Massachusetts.Search in Google Scholar
de Cuba, C. 2007. On (non)factivity, clausal complementation and the CP-field. Stony Brook University PhD dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
De Haan, G. & F. Weerman. 1985. Finiteness and verb fronting in Frisian. In H. Haider & M. Prinzhorn (eds.), Verb second phenomena in Germanic languages, 77–110. Dordrecht: Foris.Search in Google Scholar
Den Besten, H. 1977. On the interaction of root transformations and lexical deletive rules. Ms., University of Amsterdam.Search in Google Scholar
Diesing, M. 1990. Verb movement and the subject position in Yiddish. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 8(1). 41–79.10.1007/BF00205531Search in Google Scholar
Engdahl, E. 1982. Restrictions on unbounded dependencies in Swedish. In E. Engdahl & E. Ejerhed (eds.), Readings on unbounded dependencies in Scandinavian languages. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International.Search in Google Scholar
Engdahl, E. 1985. Constituent questions. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.10.1007/978-94-009-5323-9Search in Google Scholar
Engdahl, E. 1997. Relative clause extraction in context. Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax 60. 51–79.Search in Google Scholar
Engdahl, E. & E. Ejerhed. 1982. Readings on unbounded dependencies in Scandinavian languages, 151–174. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International.Search in Google Scholar
Erteschik-Shir, N. 1973. On the nature of island constraints. MIT PhD dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Erteschik-Shir, N. 1982. Extractability in Danish and the pragmatic principle of dominance. In E. Engdahl & E. Ejerhed (eds.), Readings on unbounded dependencies in Scandinavian languages. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International.Search in Google Scholar
Felser, C. 2004. Wh-copying, phases and successive-cyclicity. Lingua 114. 543–574.10.1016/S0024-3841(03)00054-8Search in Google Scholar
Gibson, E. 1998. Linguistic complexity: Locality of syntactic dependencies. Cognition 68. 1–76.10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00034-1Search in Google Scholar
Gibson, E. 2000. The dependency locality theory: A distance-based theory of linguistic complexity. In Y. Miyashita, A. Marantz & W. O’Neil (eds.), Image, language, brain, 95–126. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Gibson, E. & T. Warren. 2004. Reading-time evidence for intermediate linguistic structure in long-distance dependencies. Syntax 7(1). 55–78.10.1111/j.1368-0005.2004.00065.xSearch in Google Scholar
Grimshaw, J. 1997. Projection, heads and optimality. Linguistic Inquiry 28. 373–422.Search in Google Scholar
Grimshaw, J. 2005. Words and structure. Stanford: CSLI Publications.Search in Google Scholar
Hansen, Aa. 1967. Moderne Dansk, vols. 1–3. Copenhagen: Grafisk Forlag.Search in Google Scholar
Hansen, E. & L. Heltoft. 2011. Grammatik over det Danske Sprog, vols. 1–3. Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag.Search in Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. A. 1994. A performance theory of order and constituency. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511554285Search in Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. A. 2004. Efficiency and complexity in Grammars. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199252695.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Heinat, F. & A. Wiklund. 2015. Scandinavian relative clause extraction: Apparent restrictions. Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax 94. 36–50.Search in Google Scholar
Henry, A. 1995. Belfast English and standard English: Dialect variation and parameter setting. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Hoekstra, E. 1993. Dialectal variation inside CP as parametric variation. In W. Abraham & J. Bayer (eds.), Dialektsyntax, special issue 5 of linguistische berichte, 161–179. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.10.1007/978-3-322-97032-9_8Search in Google Scholar
Holmberg, A. 1986. Word order and syntactic features in the Scandinavian languages and English. Stockholm: University of Stockholm.Search in Google Scholar
Hooper, J. & S. Thompson. 1973. On the applicability of root transformations. Linguistic Inquiry 4(4). 465–497.Search in Google Scholar
Hrafnbjargarson, G. H., K. Bentzen & A.-L. Wiklund. 2010. Observations on extraction from V2 clauses in Scandinavian. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 3. 209–299.10.1017/S0332586510000223Search in Google Scholar
Huang, C. T. 1982. Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. MIT Doctoral dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Iatridou, S. & A. Kroch. 1992. The licensing of CP-recursion and its relevance to the Germanic verb-second phenomenon. Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax 50. 1–24.Search in Google Scholar
Jensen, A. 1998. Knudekonstruktioner – en syntaktisk, semantisk og pragmatisk analyse af sætningsknuder i dansk. University of Copenhagen Unpublished MA thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Jensen, A. 2001. Sentence intertwining in Danish. In E. Engberg-Pedersen & P. Harder (eds.), Ikonicitet of struktur, 23–39. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen.Search in Google Scholar
Johnson, K. & S. Vikner. 1994. The position of the verb in Scandinavian infinitives. Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax 53. 61–84.Search in Google Scholar
Julien, M. 2007. Embedded V2 in Norwegian and Swedish. Working papers in Scandinavian Syntax 80, 103–161. Lund: Lund University.Search in Google Scholar
Kandybowicz, J. 2008. On edge features and perfect extraction. In C. B. Chang & H. J. Haynie (eds.), Proceedings of the 26th West coast conference on formal linguistics, 288–296. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Search in Google Scholar
Kayne, R. & J. P. Pollock. 1978. Stylistic inversion, successive-cyclicity, and move NP in French. Linguistic Inquiry 9(4). 595–621.Search in Google Scholar
Koizumi, M. 1995. Phrase structure in minimalist syntax. MIT PhD dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Korzen, H. 1977. Snak om sætningsknuder. Romansk Instituts Duplikerede Småskrifter 49. 3–63.Search in Google Scholar
Kristensen, L., E. Engberg-Pedersen & M. Poulsen. 2013. Context improves comprehension of fronted objects. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. Epub ahead of print. PMID 23504556.10.1007/s10936-013-9241-ySearch in Google Scholar
Kush, D. & F. Lindahl. 2011. On the escapability of islands in Scandinavian. Handout from a talk at 2011 LSA Meeting, Pittsburgh.Search in Google Scholar
Kush, D., A. Omaki & N. Hornstein. 2013. Micro-variation in Islands? In J. Sprouse & N. Hornstein (eds.), Experimental syntax and island effects, 239–265. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139035309.013Search in Google Scholar
Larson, R. K. 1988. On the double object construction. Linguistic Inquiry 19(3). 335–391.10.4324/9780203429204-7Search in Google Scholar
Larson, R. K. 1990. Double objects revisited: Reply to Jackendoff. Linguistic Inquiry 21(4). 589–632.10.4324/9780203429204-8Search in Google Scholar
Legate, J. A. 2003. Some interface properties of the phase. Linguistic Inquiry 34(3). 506–516.10.1162/ling.2003.34.3.506Search in Google Scholar
Maling, J. & A. Zaenen. 1982. A phrase-structure account of Scandinavian extraction phenomena. In P. Jacobsen & G. Pullum (eds.), The nature of syntactic representation, 229–282. Dordrecht: Reidel.10.1007/978-94-009-7707-5_7Search in Google Scholar
Marinis, T., L. Roberts, C. Felser & H. Clahsen. 2005. Gaps in second language sentence processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27. 53–78.10.1017/S0272263105050035Search in Google Scholar
McCloskey, J. 2006. Questions and questioning in a local English. In R. Zanuttini, H. Campos, E. Herburger & P. Portner (eds.), Crosslinguistic research in syntax and semantics: Negation, tense, and clausal architecture, 87–126. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Mikkelsen, K. 1911. Dansk Ordföjningslære. Copenhagen: Lehmann & Stage. Reprinted 1975.Search in Google Scholar
Müller, G. & W. Sternefeld. 1993. Improper movement and unambiguous binding. Linguistic Inquiry 24(3). 461–507.Search in Google Scholar
Newmeyer, F. J. 2005. Possible and probable languages: A generative perspective on linguistics typology. New York: Oxford University Press,10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274338.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Nyvad, A. M. 2016. Multiple complementizers in modern Danish and Middle English. In S. Vikner, H. Jørgensen & E. V. Gelderen (eds.), Let us have articles betwixt us. Papers in Historical and Comparative Linguistics in Honour of Johanna L. Wood, 361–378. Aarhus: Dept. of English, School of Communication & Culture, Aarhus University.Search in Google Scholar
Nyvad, A. M., K. R. Christensen & S. Vikner. 2014. The left periphery and agrammatism: Wh-extractions in Danish. In E. O. Aboh, M. T. Guasti & I. Roberts (eds.), Locality, 254–273. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199945269.003.0010Search in Google Scholar
Phillips, C. 2013. Some arguments and non-arguments for reductionist accounts of syntactic phenomena. Language and Cognitive Processes 28. 156–187.10.1080/01690965.2010.530960Search in Google Scholar
Poole, G. 2011. Syntactic theory, 2nd edn. Houndmills: Palgrave MacMillan.10.1007/978-0-230-34531-7Search in Google Scholar
Poulsen, M. 2005. Sentence processing and grammatical in functional linguistics: extraction in Danish as an example. Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics, University of Copenhagen PhD thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Poulsen, M. 2008. Acceptability and processing of long-distance dependencies in Danish. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 31(1). 73–107.10.1017/S0332586508001832Search in Google Scholar
Reinhart, T. 1981. A second COMP position. In A. Belletti, L. Brandi & L. Rizzi (eds.), The theory of markedness in generative Grammar, 518–557. Pisa: Scuola Normale Superiore.Search in Google Scholar
Rizzi, L. 1997. The fine structure of the left periphery. In L. Haegeman (ed.), Elements of Grammar, 281–337. Dordrecht: Kluwer.10.1007/978-94-011-5420-8_7Search in Google Scholar
Rizzi, L. & I. Roberts. 1989. Complex inversion in French. Probus 1/1. 1–30. Reprinted in A. Belletti & L. Rizzi (eds.). 1996. Parameters and Functional Heads. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 91–116.10.4324/9781315310572-9Search in Google Scholar
Roberts, I. 1993. Verbs and diachronic syntax. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Search in Google Scholar
Ross, J. R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. MIT Doctoral dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Sabel, J. 2002. A minimalist analysis of syntactic islands. The Linguistic Review 19. 271–315.10.1515/tlir.2002.002Search in Google Scholar
Sprouse, J. 2007. Continuous acceptability, categorical grammaticality, and experimental syntax. Biolinguistics 1. 118–129.10.5964/bioling.8597Search in Google Scholar
Stowell, T. 1981. Origins of phrase structure. MIT Doctoral dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Szabolcsi, A. 2006. Strong and weak islands. In M. Everaert, H. Van Riemsdijk, R. Goedemans & B. Hollebrandse (eds.), The Blackwell companion to syntax, 479–532. London: Blackwell.10.1002/9780470996591.ch64Search in Google Scholar
Taraldsen, K. T. 1981. On the theoretical interpretation of a class of “Marked” extractions. In A. Belletti, L. Brandi & L. Rizzi (eds.), The theory of markedness in generative grammar, 475–516. Pisa: Scuola Normale Superiore.Search in Google Scholar
Thráinsson, H. 1985. V1, V2, V3 in Icelandic. In H. Haider & M. Prinzhorn (eds.), Verb second phenomena in Germanic languages, 169–194. Dordrecht: Foris.Search in Google Scholar
Torrego, E. 1984. On inversion in Spanish and some of its effects. Linguistic Inquiry 15. 103–130.Search in Google Scholar
Truswell, R. 2007a. Extraction from adjuncts and the structure of events. Lingua 117. 1355–1377.10.1016/j.lingua.2006.06.003Search in Google Scholar
Truswell, R. 2007b. Tense, events, and extraction from adjuncts. Ms, University College London.Search in Google Scholar
Uriagereka, J. 1999. Multiple spell-out. In S. D. Epstein & N. Hornstein (eds.), Working minimalism, 251–282. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Van Valin, R. D. & R. D. LaPolla. 1997. Syntax: Structure, meaning and function. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139166799Search in Google Scholar
Vandergriff, I. 2005. “weil der schmeckt so gut!” The Learner as Linguist. Die Unterrichtspraxis /Teaching German 38(1). 61–73.10.1111/j.1756-1221.2005.tb00042.xSearch in Google Scholar
Vikner, S. 1991. Relative der and Other C°-Elements in Danish. Lingua 84(2–3). 109–136.10.1016/0024-3841(91)90067-FSearch in Google Scholar
Vikner, S. 1995. Verb movement and expletive subjects in the Germanic languages, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Vikner, S. & B. Schwartz. 1996. The verb always leaves IP in V2 clauses. In A. Belletti & L. Rizzi (eds.), Parameters and functional heads, 11–62. New York: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Watanabe, A. 1993. Agr-based case theory and its interaction with the A-bar system. MIT PhD dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Wiklund, A.-L., K. Bentzen, G. H. Hrafnbjargarson & Þ. Hróarsdóttir. 2009. On the distribution and illocution of V2 in Scandinavian that-clauses. Lingua 119(12). 1914–1938.10.1016/j.lingua.2009.03.006Search in Google Scholar
© 2017 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Grammaticalization of auxiliaries and parametric changes
- CP-recursion in Danish: A cP/CP-analysis
- External syntax and the Cumulative Effect in subject sub-extraction: An experimental evaluation
- Feature reassembly as constraint satisfaction
- The many errors of Vyvyan Evans’ The Language Myth
Articles in the same Issue
- Frontmatter
- Grammaticalization of auxiliaries and parametric changes
- CP-recursion in Danish: A cP/CP-analysis
- External syntax and the Cumulative Effect in subject sub-extraction: An experimental evaluation
- Feature reassembly as constraint satisfaction
- The many errors of Vyvyan Evans’ The Language Myth