Home Development and characterization of bronze-Cr-Ni composites produced by powder metallurgy
Article Open Access

Development and characterization of bronze-Cr-Ni composites produced by powder metallurgy

  • Aykut Canakci EMAIL logo , Temel Varol , Hamdullah Cuvalci , Fatih Erdemir and Serdar Ozkaya
Published/Copyright: March 21, 2014
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
Science and Engineering of Composite Materials
From the journal Science and Engineering of Composite Materials Volume 22 Issue 4

Abstract

In this study, the bronze-Cr-Ni composites were prepared by means of the powder metallurgical method. The influence of the composition and compact pressure on microstructure, density, hardness and electrical conductivity was examined. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) were used to analyze the microstructure of the contact materials. The results showed that density of the bronze-Cr-Ni composites decreased with increasing Ni content. Increasing compact pressure led to lower porosity and consequently improved the density of bronze-Cr-Ni composites. The relative green density increased from 78% to 95% with the increase in the compact pressure from 200 MPa to 800 MPa. The hardness values showed a decrease from 95.1 BHN to 71.6 BHN by the addition of Ni from 1 wt% to 5 wt% at 800 MPa. It was found that addition of Ni at 1 wt% was required to achieve increased hardness and sufficient conductivity for bronze-Cr-Ni composites. The electrical conductivities of contact materials containing 3 wt% Ni and 5 wt% Ni was lower than that of 1 wt% Ni.

Keywords: composites; electrical conductivity; electrical contact materials; powder metallurgy

1 Introduction

Electrical contact materials are used in several applications, such as electrical switches, contactors, circuit breakers, voltage regulators, arcing tips, switch gears and relays [1]. Copper and its alloys have been used for many years for the production of electrical contacts and electrical contact backing [2–5]. Bronze electrical contacts are usually used for small and medium-pitch signals, moderate-power connectors and connector contacts. Their main advantages are excellent long-term spring properties, resistance to high temperature conditions, electrical conductivity, temperature conductivity and melting point, as well as low cost. In contrast, they have also some disadvantages including low resistance to corrosion, oxidation, wear, arc erosion and self-lubricating ability and welding. In order to eliminate these shortcomings, bronze-Cr-Ni composites can be replaced with bronze contact materials. Bronze alloys have self-lubricating ability and so the adverse effect of the welding process between contact materials during operation can be reduced. The addition of chromium to copper facilitates formation of chromium oxide layers on the contact surface and provides good voltage resistance and an anti-corrosion property of arcing. Furthermore, the addition of nickel to bronze improves the mechanical properties and resistance to oxidation and wear.

Powder metallurgy (PM) is one of the methods to produce metal parts in a uniform and fine microstructure. The method makes it easy to combine different types of materials for yielding unique property combinations [6, 7]. The PM technique has several advantages over other manufacturing processes. Compared with melting methods, PM requires a low manufacturing temperature. That is why undesired phases between the matrix phase and the reinforcement phase are eliminated. Moreover, reinforcement particles are also well-distributed in the matrix [8]. Another significant feature is the ability to produce near net shape parts, which is cost effective [9]. Some materials, such as electrical contact materials [10, 11], copper alloys [12], metal matrix composites [13, 14] and most intermetallics [15] can be produced successfully via the PM technique.

For decades many researchers have studied how to develop ceramic particle reinforced electrical contact materials with high performance [1–3], accordingly, much work has been done to improve the mechanical properties of the contact materials. However, it is necessary to maintain the thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, self-lubricating ability and electrical properties while improving the mechanical properties and, as is known, the electrical conductivity excessively decreases due to the insulating ceramic particles and non-conductive regions. There are many factors that can influence electrical and mechanical properties of contact materials. Important factors in determining the properties of the material produced by the PM technique are the material composition and the compression pressure. Although it is accepted that the properties of electrical contact materials depends on the material composition, compact pressure and other processing parameters, it is known that there is still a lack of information on the properties of bronze-Cr-Ni composites. Until now, to the authors’ knowledge, no study on bronze-Cr-Ni composites produced by PM has been reported. In this respect, the aim of this paper was to produce bronze-Cr-Ni composites by PM and to study the effect of material composition and compression pressure on the properties of novel bronze-Cr-Ni composites.

2 Materials and methods

Arsenic(As)-atomized bronze powders (CuSn10, Alfa Aesar, Karlsruhe, Germany) with an average powder particle size of 28 μm and a theoretical density of 8.7 g/cm3, chromium powders (99.9%, Alfa Aesar, Karlsruhe, Germany) with an average powder particle size of 40 μm and a theoretical density of 7.19 g/cm3 and nickel powders (99.9%, Alfa Aesar, Karlsruhe, Germany) with an average powder particle size of 58 μm and a theoretical density of 8.91 g/cm3 were used to produce bronze-Cr-Ni electrical contact materials. Bronze-Cr-Ni powders were mixed together in a laboratory mixer as presented in Table 1. Then, all powder mixtures were uniaxially cold pressed at 200 MPa, 300 MPa, 500 MPa and 800 MPa to form a series of cylindrical specimens. The zinc stearate was coated on the inner wall of the mould and surface of the samples as a lubricant. The compacted samples 30 mm in diameter and approximately 6 mm thick pellets were obtained, which were used to determine the compressibility curves of the powders. The compacted green bulk specimens were sintered at 900°C for 3 h under protective pure argon gas in a tube furnace. For microstructural investigations the test samples were prepared by standard metallographic techniques.

Table 1

The properties of as-received materials and milling parameters.

Material composition (wt%)CodeCompact pressure (MPa)Sintering temp. (°C)Sintering time (h)
CuSn10CrNi
89101C1200-300-500-8009003
87103C3200-300-500-8009003
85105C5200-300-500-8009003

Zeiss Evo LS10 scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX) was used to characterize the microstructure of the contact samples. Brinell hardness values of the samples were measured on the polished samples using a ball with 2.5 mm diameter at a load of 60 kg. The electrical conductivity of contact materials was carried out on Sigmascope SMP10 HF electrical conductivity measurement device. Each data point of hardness and conductivity had an average value of not <5 measurements. The theoretical density of bronze-Cr-Ni electrical contacts was calculated using the rule of mixtures [16]. The experimental density for the contact samples was calculated using Archimede’s method. The cylindrical sample was weighed in air (Wa), then suspended in distilled water and weighed again (Ww). The experimental density was calculated according to Equation (1).

(1)δe=[Wa/(Wa-Ww)×δw] (1)

Where δe is the experimental density, Wa is the mass of the cylindrical sample in air, Ww is the mass in distilled water and δw is the density of distilled water. The sample was weighed using a balance with an accuracy of 0.1 mg. For each sample five density tests and five hardness tests were performed in order to eliminate the possible errors.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Microstructure

Figure 1 shows the microstructures of the samples compacted at different compact pressures for C3 composite. The microstructure of the contact material mainly consisted of size, amount and distribution of porosities. Porosity is a general feature of PM materials and strongly effects properties and application of materials. The presence of porosities caused a decrease in the physical (density), mechanical (hardness) and electrical (conductivity) properties. Not only the amount of porosity but also size, shape and interconnectivity of the porosity have a significant effects on the properties [17–19]. From SEM images (Figures 1A–C), it was observed that the size and amount of porosities decreased with increasing compact pressure. This can be explained by the good packing or densification of powders due to rearrangement, elastic deformation and plastic deformation. The distance between interacting particles reduced with increasing compact pressure and plastic deformation and the distance between contact surfaces increased simultaneously. It should be noted that the plastic deformation is very important for tight packing of powders and the production of high-density material. A relative densification mechanism of mixed powder contact materials with compression pressure should be well known. At low pressure, the densification results in particle rearrangement. The increase in density is particularly important when the initial density of the powder is low. Ideally, pure rearrangement should lead to the maximum packing density of the powder, which depends on the size distribution and on the shape of the particles. The continuation of the densification can result either in the plastic deformation of the particles or from their fragmentation, depending on whether these particles are ductile or brittle at the temperature of the compression. At the final stage, particle deformation leads to complete densification if the pressure is high enough or if the holding time is long enough [20, 21]. As it can be seen in Figure 1A–C, Cr particles showed semi-homogeneous distribution in the bronze matrix. Also there were some black points representing porosities which were formed during the powder metallurgy process. It should be noted that Cr particles were usually placed between the bronze matrix powders. With increasing compression pressure, two major events took place during rearrangement and elastic deformation. The first event was the settlement of Cr powders (which was more than Ni powders) between matrix powders due to rearrangement of ductile bronze powders (Figure 1A). The second event was that hard Cr powders could be embedded into ductile bronze powders (Figure 1B).

Figure 1 SEM images of C3 electrical contact materials at different compact pressure; (A) 200 MPa, (B) 500 MPa, (C) 800 MPa.
Figure 1

SEM images of C3 electrical contact materials at different compact pressure; (A) 200 MPa, (B) 500 MPa, (C) 800 MPa.

With increasing the amount of Ni, both the amount of porosity and size of porosity increased due to high resistance to plastic deformation of Ni powders (Figure 2). In other words, the packing ability of mixture powders decreased with increasing the Ni content. Higher Ni content did not allow for contact of ductile bronze powders, while lower Ni has supported the contact of ductile bronze powders. Compared to that in the C1 composites, the size and amount of porosities in the C5 composites exhibited a significant increase.

Figure 2 SEM images of electrical contact materials at 800 MPa; (A) C1, (B) C3, (C) C5.
Figure 2

SEM images of electrical contact materials at 800 MPa; (A) C1, (B) C3, (C) C5.

The chemical compositions of the marked points on the image were measured by EDX techniques (Figure 2). These three regions were marked as A, B and C, and the magnified pictures were shown in Figure 2A–C. EDX results showed that more Cu and Sn elements were found in region A, compared to that of regions B and C. However, more Ni element was found in region C, than in A and B. B region contained only the element chromium.

EBSD (electron backscatter diffraction) maps were obtained from C3 composite (Figure 3). As shown in Figure 3B, Cu-Ni solid solution formed during the sintering process (at 900°C). It should be noted that Cu and Ni are completely soluble in each other in solid state [22]. However, Cu-rich region did not contain the Cr element (Figure 3B) due to the fact that maximum solubility of Cu in body-centred cubic (bcc) Cr is <0.2 at % (the limit of solid solubility) [23].

Figure 3 (A) Backscatter SEM image and (B) electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) image map for C3 electrical contact material.
Figure 3

(A) Backscatter SEM image and (B) electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) image map for C3 electrical contact material.

3.2 Density

Figure 4 shows the measured relative green density and relative sintered densities of the compacted samples at different pressures and Ni content. The relative green and sintered densities of samples significantly decreased with decreasing the compact pressure and increasing Ni content. Increasing the Ni content to 800 MPa, the relative green density of the samples decreased to 95% for C1, 92.7% for C3 and 83.4% for C5. The relative sintered densities of the three compositions pressed at 800 MPa, which were 98.7% (C1), 94.8% (C3) and 91.6% (C5). It should be noted that the effect of compact pressure was more remarkable on the compressibility behavior since there was an exponential increase in relative green density and relative sintered density with increasing compact pressure. It is worth mentioning that the variation of the relative sintered density with the compact pressure was extremely essential for industrial application. The green and sintered density increased with the increasing the compact pressure (Figure 4). The relative green density increased from 78% to 95% with the compact pressure increase from 200 MPa to 800 MPa for the C1 (1 wt% Ni reinforced composites), from 73.9 to 92.7 for the C3 (3 wt% Ni reinforced composites), and from 63.8 to 83.39 for the C5 (5 wt% Ni reinforced composites) compositions. Pressing for 800 MPa in C1 samples obtained a relative sintered density of 98.7% of theoretical value while 300 MPa only increased to 85%. As shown in Figure 4, relative sintered density increased from 79.5% to 84% when compact pressure was extended from 200 MPa to 800 MPa for C3 samples.

Figure 4 Compressibility curves of bronze-Cr-Ni electrical contact materials; (A) relative green density, (B) relative sintered density.
Figure 4

Compressibility curves of bronze-Cr-Ni electrical contact materials; (A) relative green density, (B) relative sintered density.

3.3 Hardness

Hardness was shown to be primarily connected to the porosity within the grain and between the grain boundaries, where the hardness increases with decreases in the size and amount of porosity [24–26]. Brinell hardness values investigated on the faces of compacted samples were found to increase with increasing compacting pressure for each of the three material compositions (Figure 5). The hardness curves indicate the typical hardness behavior of the PM technique, i.e., the hardness increased with increasing compaction pressure due to increasing density [27–29]. The hardness of PM materials was influenced by density, compact pressure, powder properties and manufacturing method. The hardness values for each of the three material compositions consolidated at 800 MPa were very high and much above the values obtained at 200 MPa (Figure 5). Brinell hardness values increased from 50.7% to 95.1% when increasing the compact pressure from 200 MPa to 800 MPa for the C1, from 40.5 to 82.21 for the C2, and from 34.53 to 74.6 for the C3 compositions. The hardness was found to decrease with Ni particles additions. The sample containing 1 wt Ni showed higher hardness compared to that of containing 3 wt and 5 wt%Ni. The difference between hardness of the C1, C2 and C3 samples stemmed from the increase in Ni content. These results can be attributed to the effect of Ni on the densification or compressibility behavior of the PM bronze-Cr-Ni electrical contact materials.

Figure 5 Effect of compact pressure and Ni content on hardness of bronze-Cr-Ni electrical contact materials.
Figure 5

Effect of compact pressure and Ni content on hardness of bronze-Cr-Ni electrical contact materials.

3.4 Electrical conductivity

It is well known that the electrical properties of the contact materials are significantly influenced by material composition, production method and their microstructure, such as the amount of porosities’ distribution. Zhang et al. [30] investigated the Cr, Ni and W content effect in Cu alloy. They have demonstrated that the electrical conductivity of contact materials containing higher Ni, Cr and W content is lower than the electrical conductivity of contact materials containing a lower Ni, Cr and W content. Findik and Uzun [31] studied the reinforcement content effects on the electrical conductivity of Ag-W and Ag-WC electrical contact materials. They found that the electrical conductivity of Ag-W composite increased with increasing Ag content, but decreased its hardness. Moreover, they observed that the addition of WC to Ag increased its hardness, but decreased its electrical conductivity as compared with the addition of W to Ag. Bukhanovsky et al. [2] investigated the influence of W addition on the electrical conductivity of Cu-W contact materials. They demonstrated that with an increase in W content the hardness and strength of the Cu-W contact material increased, but electrical conductivity of the Cu-W contact material decreased. Lahiri and Bhargava [5] studied the effect of Cr content on the density, hardness and electrical conductivity of Cu-Cr electrical contact materials. They found a very strong influence of the Cr addition on the density, hardness and electrical conductivity of the Cu-Cr electrical contact materials in the range of addition from 10 wt% to 50 wt% of Cr.

In this study, the Ni content in the bronze-Cr-Ni composites varied from 1 wt% to 5 wt%. It can be seen from Figure 6 that the electrical conductivity of bronze matrix decreased with the addition of alloying elements. The electrical conductivity decreased with increasing Ni content because the compressibility ability of powders decreased due to increasing Ni content. It is also worth mentioning that comparing the electrical conductivities of contact materials revealed that C1 composites showed higher electrical conductivity. The porosity present in the bronze-Cr-Ni electrical contact materials reduced the electrical conductivity as shown in Figure 6. The porosity of contact materials with increasing compact pressure was reduced and the overall increase in the electrical conductivity value was observed (Figure 6). The electrical conductivity of all the contact materials compacted at 800 MPa were higher than that acquired at 200 MPa. Moreover, the electrical conductivity of the bronze-Cr-Ni contact material compacted at 800 MPa decreased with the increase in Ni content, and reached the lowest conductivity for C5 composites. It should be noted that the influence of compact pressure on electrical conductivity was quite apparent from the experimental data between lower and higher compact pressure (Figure 6).

Figure 6 The change of relative conductivity with compact pressure and Ni content.
Figure 6

The change of relative conductivity with compact pressure and Ni content.

4 Conclusions

Following conclusions can be drawn from the experimental results:

  1. The electrical conductivity of bronze-Cr-Ni composites fabricated by the PM technique demonstrated a strong dependence on material composition, compact pressure and microstructure of the contact materials.

  2. The microstructure of the bronze-Cr-Ni composites revealed that the Ni particles were distributed uniformly in the matrix phase, whereas Cr particles were distributed semi-homogeneous in the bronze matrix.

  3. The Ni content in the bronze considerably decreased the density and increased the porosity. The hardness of bronze-Cr-Ni composites decreased with increasing Ni content due to increasing the porosity. The hardness values decreased from 95.1 BHN to 71.6 BHN by the Ni addition from 1 wt% to 5 wt% at 800 MPa. The Brinell hardness of the C1 composites fabricated at 800 MPa was about 1.36 fold higher than that of the bronze matrix (70 BHN).

  4. The electrical conductivity, density and hardness of C1 electrical contact materials were larger than those of C3 and C5 composites. 1%wt of Ni addition and 800 MPa of compact pressure were optimum conditions for the best density, hardness and electrical conductivity values. For 800 MPa in C1 samples obtained a relative conductivity of 82.73% of bronze matrix (11 IACs) while 200 MPa only increased to 43%.

  5. The new bronze-Cr-Ni composites can be used as contactors, switch gear, low-voltage regulators due to their sufficient conductivity and high hardness.

Corresponding author: Aykut Canakci, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon 61080, Turkey, e-mail:

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Karadeniz Technical University Research Foundation for financially supporting this research (No: 2010.112.0105).

References

[1] Guler O, Evin EJ. Mater. Process Technol. 2009, 209, 1286–1290.Search in Google Scholar

[2] Bukhanovsky VV, Grechanyuk NI, Minakova RV, Mamuzich I, Kharchenko VV, Rudnitsky NP. Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard. Mater. 2011, 29, 573–581.Search in Google Scholar

[3] Shi-xin X, Ren Y, Jun X, Jin-xing W. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 2009, 19, 444–447.Search in Google Scholar

[4] Mula S, Sahani P, Pratihar SK, Mal S, Koch CC. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2011, 328, 4348–4356.10.1016/j.msea.2011.03.040Search in Google Scholar

[5] Lahiri I, Bhargava S. Powder Technol. 2008, 189, 433–438.Search in Google Scholar

[6] Gokçe A, Fındık F, Kurt AO. Mater. Charact. 2011, 62, 730–735.Search in Google Scholar

[7] Pokorska IJ. Mater. Process Technol. 2008, 196, 15–32.Search in Google Scholar

[8] Dobrzanski LA, Weodarczyk A, Adamiak M. J. Mater. Process Technol. 2006, 175, 186–191.Search in Google Scholar

[9] Rahimian M, Parvin N, Ehsani N. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2010, 527, 1031–1038.10.1016/j.msea.2009.09.034Search in Google Scholar

[10] Xu C, Yi D, Wu C, Liu H, Li W. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2012, 538, 202–209.10.1016/j.msea.2012.01.031Search in Google Scholar

[11] Liu Y, Senturk BS, Mantese JV, Aindow M, Alpay SP. J. Mater. Sci. 2011, 46, 6563–6570.Search in Google Scholar

[12] Vajpai SK, Dube RK, Chatterjee P, Sangal SA. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2012, 43, 2484–2499.10.1007/s11661-012-1081-0Search in Google Scholar

[13] Canakci A, Ozsahin S, Varol T. Powder Technol. 2012, 228, 26–35.Search in Google Scholar

[14] Celikyurek I, Körpe NO, Ölcer T, Gürler R. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2011, 27, 937–943.Search in Google Scholar

[15] Moussa SO, El-Gizawy AS, El-Shall MS. Intermetall. 2007, 15, 1057–1065.Search in Google Scholar

[16] Wang HY, Jiang QC, Wang Y, Ma BX, Zhao F. Mater. Lett. 2004, 58, 3509–3513.Search in Google Scholar

[17] Bocchini GF. Int. J. Powder Metall. 1986, 22, 185–202.Search in Google Scholar

[18] Danninger H, Jangg G, Weiss B, Stickler R. Powder Metall. Int. 1993, 25, 111–117.Search in Google Scholar

[19] Gerard DA, Koss DA. Int. J. Powder Metall. 1990, 26, 337–343.Search in Google Scholar

[20] Bouvard D. Powder Technol. 2000, 111, 231–239.Search in Google Scholar

[21] Hafizpour HR, Simchi A, Parvizi S. Adv. Powder Technol. 2010, 21, 273–278.Search in Google Scholar

[22] Brooks, CR. In: Heat Treatment, Structure and Properties of Nonferrous Alloys. ASME, Ohio, 1990.Search in Google Scholar

[23] Sheibani S, Heshmati-Manesh S, Ataie A. J. Alloys Compd. 2010, 495, 59–62.Search in Google Scholar

[24] Sivasankaran S, Sivaprasad K, Narayanasamy R, Iyer VK. Powder Technol. 2010, 201, 70–82.Search in Google Scholar

[25] Enneti RK, Lusin A, Kumar S, German RM, Atre SV. Powder Technol. 2013, 233, 22–29.Search in Google Scholar

[26] Jabur AS. Powder Technol. 2013, 237, 477–483.Search in Google Scholar

[27] Gan K, Gu M. J. Mater. Process Technol. 2008, 199, 173–177.Search in Google Scholar

[28] Liu X, Hu L, Wang E. J. Alloys Compd. 2013, 551, 682–687.Search in Google Scholar

[29] Boland CD, Hexemer JRL, Donaldson IW, Bishop DP. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2013, 559, 902–908.10.1016/j.msea.2012.09.049Search in Google Scholar

[30] Zhang C, Yang Z, Wang Y, Ding B, Guo Y. J. Mater. Process Technol. 2006, 178, 283–286.Search in Google Scholar

[31] Findik F, Uzun H. Mater. Des. 2003, 24, 489–492.Search in Google Scholar

Received: 2013-10-21
Accepted: 2013-12-31
Published Online: 2014-3-21
Published in Print: 2015-7-1

©2015 by De Gruyter

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Original articles
  3. Triticale straw and its thermoplastic biocomposites
  4. Morphological and mechanical properties of chemically treated municipal solid waste (MSW)/banana fiber and their reinforcement in polymer composites
  5. Structure-property responses of bio-inspired synthetic foams at low and high strain rates
  6. Water absorption and thickness swelling behavior of almond (Prunus amygdalus L.) shell particles and coconut (Cocos nucifera) fiber hybrid epoxy-based biocomposite
  7. Mechanical behavior of walnut (Juglans L.) shell particles reinforced bio-composite
  8. Melt grafting copolymerization of glycidyl methacrylate onto acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) terpolymer
  9. Investigation of toughening behavior of epoxy resin by reinforcement of depolymerized latex rubber
  10. Influence of tire-cord layers and arrangement direction on the physical properties of polyester tire cord reinforced with chloroprene rubber composite materials
  11. Biological effect of SAR on the human head due to variation of dielectric properties at 1800 and 2450 MHz with different antenna substrate materials
  12. The comparison of microstructure and oxidation behaviors of (SiC-C)/PyC/SiC and C/PyCHT/SiC composites in air
  13. Development and characterization of bronze-Cr-Ni composites produced by powder metallurgy
  14. Antioxidant modification of C/C composites by in situ hydrothermally synthesized 4ZnO·B2O3·H2O
  15. Investigation of the joining characteristics of Al-B4C composites manufactured by friction welding
  16. Influence of skin wrinkles and resin insertions in maximum stress of transitions of pure bending sandwich beams
  17. Development of a new method for design of stiffened composite pressure vessels using lattice structures
https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2013-0262
Keywords for this article
composites; electrical conductivity; electrical contact materials; powder metallurgy
Creative Commons
BY-NC-ND 3.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Original articles
  3. Triticale straw and its thermoplastic biocomposites
  4. Morphological and mechanical properties of chemically treated municipal solid waste (MSW)/banana fiber and their reinforcement in polymer composites
  5. Structure-property responses of bio-inspired synthetic foams at low and high strain rates
  6. Water absorption and thickness swelling behavior of almond (Prunus amygdalus L.) shell particles and coconut (Cocos nucifera) fiber hybrid epoxy-based biocomposite
  7. Mechanical behavior of walnut (Juglans L.) shell particles reinforced bio-composite
  8. Melt grafting copolymerization of glycidyl methacrylate onto acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) terpolymer
  9. Investigation of toughening behavior of epoxy resin by reinforcement of depolymerized latex rubber
  10. Influence of tire-cord layers and arrangement direction on the physical properties of polyester tire cord reinforced with chloroprene rubber composite materials
  11. Biological effect of SAR on the human head due to variation of dielectric properties at 1800 and 2450 MHz with different antenna substrate materials
  12. The comparison of microstructure and oxidation behaviors of (SiC-C)/PyC/SiC and C/PyCHT/SiC composites in air
  13. Development and characterization of bronze-Cr-Ni composites produced by powder metallurgy
  14. Antioxidant modification of C/C composites by in situ hydrothermally synthesized 4ZnO·B2O3·H2O
  15. Investigation of the joining characteristics of Al-B4C composites manufactured by friction welding
  16. Influence of skin wrinkles and resin insertions in maximum stress of transitions of pure bending sandwich beams
  17. Development of a new method for design of stiffened composite pressure vessels using lattice structures
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 25.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/secm-2013-0262/html
Scroll to top button