Home Manufacturing defects of woven natural fibre thermoset composites
Article
Licensed
Unlicensed Requires Authentication

Manufacturing defects of woven natural fibre thermoset composites

  • Abdan Khalina EMAIL logo , Ching hao Lee and Aisyah Humaira
Published/Copyright: September 14, 2022
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
Physical Sciences Reviews
From the journal Physical Sciences Reviews Volume 9 Issue 1

Abstract

Thermoset polymer are components with high strength, chemical inert and thermally stable, due to its high degree of cross-linking. Natural fibre composite is providing a winning solution for extraordinary performances yet biodegradable. Woven form fibre even found better in specific energy absorption and stronger in strength. Fabricating woven thermoset composites may be done in a variety of ways. However, processing errors or manufacturing defects often occur by many factors, especially thermoset composites with natural fibre reinforcement. It is nearly impossible to achieves in detect-free when in lab scale production. Hence, it is important to study and understand the factors that causing the defects. Processing parameters, compatibility of matrix/fibre combination, yarn production and woven waiving skills may be the reasons of composite’s defects. In this chapter, several fabrication methods for woven thermoset composite were introduced. Some major defects on manufacturing the thermoset composites were highlighted. Some future perception of the woven natural fibre thermoset composite also have been discussed. This chapter set as a guidance to avoid or minimizes manufacturing defects upon thermoset composite processing.

Keywords: defects; manufacturing process; natural fibre composite; thermoset composites; woven fibre
Corresponding author: Abdan Khalina, Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; and Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia, E-mail:

Funding source: Universiti Putra Malaysia Grant- 9300426 – Development of New Hybrid Material For Blast-Proof Aircraft Cargo Container

Award Identifier / Grant number: 9300426

  1. Author contributions: All the authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.

  2. Research funding: This work was supported by Universiti Putra Malaysia Grant, 9300426 – Development of New Hybrid Material for Blast Proof Aircraft Cargo Container.

  3. Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article.

References

1. Ngo, TT, Kohl, JG, Paradise, T, Khalily, A, Simonson, DL. Improving mechanical properties of thermoset biocomposites by fiber coating or organic oil addition. Int J Polym Sci 2015;2015:840823. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/840823.Search in Google Scholar

2. Al-Maharma, AY, Al-Huniti, N. Critical review of the parameters affecting the effectiveness of moisture absorption treatments used for natural composites. J Compos Sci 2019;3:27. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs3010027.Search in Google Scholar

3. Symington, M, Banks, W, West, O, Pethrick, R. Tensile testing of cellulose based natural fibers for structural composite applications. J Compos Mater 2009;43:1083–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998308097740.Search in Google Scholar

4. Chaudhary, V, Bajpai, PK, Maheshwari, S. Effect of moisture absorption on the mechanical performance of natural fiber reinforced woven hybrid bio-composites. J Nat Fibers 2020;17:84–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1469451.Search in Google Scholar

5. Guzman, VA, Brøndsted, P. Effects of moisture on glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites. J Compos Mater 2014;49:911–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998314527330.Search in Google Scholar

6. Lee, CH, Khalina, A, Lee, SH. Importance of interfacial adhesion condition on characterization of plant-fiber-reinforced polymer composites: a review. Polymers 2021;13:438. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13030438.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

7. Arumugam, S, Kandasamy, J, Venkatesan, S, Murugan, R, Lakshmi Narayanan, V, Sultan, MTH, et al.. A review on the effect of fabric reinforcement on strength enhancement of natural fiber composites. Materials 2022;15:3025. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093025.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

8. Li, M, Pu, Y, Thomas, VM, Yoo, CG, Ozcan, S, Deng, Y, et al.. Recent advancements of plant-based natural fiber–reinforced composites and their applications. Compos B Eng 2020;200:108254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108254.Search in Google Scholar

9. Cruz, J, Fangueiro, R. Surface modification of natural fibers: a review. Procedia Eng 2016;155:285–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.030.Search in Google Scholar

10. May-Pat, A, Valadez-González, A, Herrera-Franco, PJ. Effect of fiber surface treatments on the essential work of fracture of HDPE-continuous henequen fiber-reinforced composites. Polym Test 2013;32:1114–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2013.06.006.Search in Google Scholar

11. Farokhi Nejad, A, Bin Salim, MY, Rahimian Koloor, SS, Petrik, S, Yahya, MY, Abu Hassan, S, et al.. Hybrid and synthetic FRP composites under different strain rates: a review. Polymers 2021;13:3400. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193400.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

12. Osborne. Uses & applications of thermosetting plastics. Available from: https://www.osborneindustries.com/news/thermosetting-plastic-uses-applications/ [Accessed 18 Feb 2022].Search in Google Scholar

13. Aisyah, HA, Paridah, MT, Sapuan, SM, Khalina, A, Berkalp, OB, Lee, SH, et al.. Thermal properties of woven kenaf/carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy hybrid composite panels. Int J Polym Sci 2019;2019: 5258621. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5258621.Search in Google Scholar

14. Cihan, M, Sobey, A, Blake, J. Mechanical and dynamic performance of woven flax/E-glass hybrid composites. Compos Sci Technol 2018:172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2018.12.030.Search in Google Scholar

15. Djafar, Z, Renreng, I, Jannah, M. Tensile and bending strength analysis of ramie fiber and woven ramie reinforced epoxy composite. J Nat Fibers 2020;18:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2020.1726242.Search in Google Scholar

16. Jawaid, M, Abdul Khalil, HPS, Bakar, A. Woven hybrid composites: tensile and flexural properties of oil palm-woven jute fibres based epoxy composites. Mater Sci Eng 2011;528:5190–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2011.03.047.Search in Google Scholar

17. Kunze, W, Möhler, H. Characterization of processing parameters for injection molding of thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics using thermal analysis. Thermochim Acta 1985;83:47–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-6031(85)85792-0.Search in Google Scholar

18. Aisyah, H, Tahir, MP, Sapuan, S, Khalina, A, Ilyas, RA, Norizan, MN. A review of biocomposites in biomedical application. In: Sapuan, SM, Nukman, Y, Abu Osman, NA, Ilyas, RA, editors. Composites in Biomedical Applications, 1st ed. CRC Press; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429327766-2.Search in Google Scholar

19. Khandai, S, Nayak, R, Kumar, A, Das, D, Kumar, R. Assessment of mechanical and tribological properties of flax/kenaf/glass/carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites. Mater Today Proc 2019;18:3835–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.322.Search in Google Scholar

20. Morris, RH, Geraldi, NR, Stafford, JL, Spicer, A, Hall, J, Bradley, C, et al.. Woven natural fibre reinforced composite materials for medical imaging. Materials 2020;13:1684. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13071684.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

21. Salman, S, Leman, ZB. Physical mechanical and ballistic properties of kenaf fiber reinforced poly vinyl butyral and its hybrid composites. In: Sapuan, SM, Ismail, H, Zainudin, ES, editors. Woodhead publishing series in composites science and engineering, natural fibre reinforced vinyl ester and vinyl polymer composites, Woodhead Publishing; 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102160-6.00013-5.Search in Google Scholar

22. Sekaran, ASJ, Kumar, KP. Study on drilling of woven sisal and aloevera natural fibre polymer composite. Mater Today Proc 2019;16:640–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.05.140.Search in Google Scholar

23. Yorseng, K, Mavinkere Rangappa, S, Parameswaranpillai, J, Siengchin, S. Influence of accelerated weathering on the mechanical, fracture morphology, thermal stability, contact angle, and water absorption properties of natural fiber fabric-based epoxy hybrid composites. Polymers 2020;12:2254. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102254.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

24. Ghoushji, MJ, Eshkoor, RA, Zulkifli, R, Sulong, AB, Abdullah, S, Azhari, CH. Energy absorption capability of axially compressed woven natural ramie/green epoxy square composite tubes. J Reinf Plast Compos 2017;36:1028–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684417700482.Search in Google Scholar

25. Salman, S, Leman, Z, Hameed Sultan, MT, Ishak, M, Cardona, F. The effects of orientation on the mechanical and morphological properties of woven kenaf-reinforced poly vinyl butyral film. Bioresources 2016;11:1176–88. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.11.1.1176-1188.Search in Google Scholar

26. McDaniels, K, Downs, RJ, Meldner, H, Beach, C, Adams, C. High strength-to-weight ratio non-woven technical fabrics for aerospace applications. AIAA balloon system conference, Seattle, Washington, 4–7 May 2009.10.2514/6.2009-2802Search in Google Scholar

27. Sepe, R, Pozzi, A. Mechanical properties of woven natural fiber reinforced composites. ECCM15 – 15th European conference on composite materials, Venice, Italy, 24–28 June 2012.Search in Google Scholar

28. Liu, Q, Hughes, M. The fracture behaviour and toughness of woven flax fibre reinforced epoxy composites. Compos Appl Sci Manuf 2008;39:1644–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.07.008.Search in Google Scholar

29. Lee, CH, Khalina, A, Nurazzi, NM, Norli, A, Harussani, MM, Rafiqah, SA, et al.. The challenges and future perspective of woven kenaf reinforcement in thermoset polymer composites in Malaysia: a review. Polymers 2021;13:1390. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091390.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

30. Marya, R, Abdellaoui, H, Essabir, H, Kakou, C-A, Bouhfid, R, Qaiss, A. Prediction of the cyclic durability of woven-hybrid composites. In: Jawaid, M, Thariq, M, Saba, N, editors. Woodhead publishing series in composites science and engineering, durability and life prediction in biocomposites, fibre-reinforced composites and hybrid composites. Woodhead Publishing; 2018, vol 35.Search in Google Scholar

31. Laurenzi, S, Marchetti, M. Advanced composite materials by resin transfer molding for aerospace applications. Hu, N, editor. Composites and their properties. IntechOpen; 2012. https://doi.org/10.5772/48172.Search in Google Scholar

32. Bhat, P, Merotte, J, Simacek, P, Advani, S. Process analysis of compression resin transfer molding. Compos Appl Sci Manuf 2009;40:431–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.01.006.Search in Google Scholar

33. Simacek, P, Advani, S. Simulating three-dimensional flow in compression resin transfer molding process. Rev Eur Des Eléments Finis 2012;2005:777–802. https://doi.org/10.3166/reef.14.777-802.Search in Google Scholar

34. Advani, S, Sozer, E, Mishnaevsky, LJr. Process modeling in composite manufacturing. Appl Mech Rev 2003;56. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1584418.Search in Google Scholar

35. Hang, X, Li, Y, Hao, X, Li, N, Wen, Y. Effects of temperature profiles of microwave curing processes on mechanical properties of carbon fibre–reinforced composites. Proc Inst Mech Eng B J Eng Manuf 2017;231:1332–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954405415596142.Search in Google Scholar

36. Hao, L-C, Li, Z-X, Sun, F, Ding, K, Zhou, X-N, Song, Z-X, et al.. High-performance epoxy composites reinforced with three-dimensional Al2O3 ceramic framework. Compos Appl Sci Manuf 2019;127: 105648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105648.Search in Google Scholar

37. Hu, Y, Du, G, Chen, N. A novel approach for Al2O3/epoxy composites with high strength and thermal conductivity. Compos Sci Technol 2016;124:36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2016.01.010.Search in Google Scholar

38. Umamheshwar rao, RS, Mahender, T. Mechanical properties and optimization of processing parameters for epoxy/glass fiber reinforced composites. Mater Today Proc 2019;19:489–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.641.Search in Google Scholar

39. Ramírez-Herrera, CA, Cruz-Cruz, I, Jiménez-Cedeño, IH, Martínez-Romero, O, Elías-Zúñiga, A. Influence of the epoxy resin process parameters on the mechanical properties of produced bidirectional [±45°] carbon/epoxy woven composites. Polymers 2021;13:1273. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13081273.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

40. Raghavendra, G, Ojha, S, Acharya, S, Pal, S. Jute fiber reinforced epoxy composites and comparison with the glass and neat epoxy composites. J Compos Mater 2014;48:2537–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998313499955.Search in Google Scholar

41. Bhudolia, SK, Perrotey, P, Gohel, G, Joshi, SC, Gerard, P, Leong, KF. Optimizing bladder resin transfer molding process to manufacture complex, thin-ply thermoplastic tubular composite structures: an experimental case study. 2021;13:4093. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13234093.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

42. Azman Mohammad Taib, MN, Julkapli, NM. 4 – dimensional stability of natural fiber-based and hybrid composites. In: Jawaid, M, Thariq, M, Saba, N, editors. Mechanical and physical testing of biocomposites, fibre-reinforced composites and hybrid composites. Woodhead Publishing; 2019:61–79 pp.10.1016/B978-0-08-102292-4.00004-7Search in Google Scholar

43. Tatsuno, D, Yoneyama, T, Kawamoto, K, Okamoto, M. Hot press forming of thermoplastic CFRP sheets. Procedia Manuf 2018;15:1730–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2018.07.254.Search in Google Scholar

44. Peerzada, M, Abbasi, S, Lau, KT, Hameed, N. Additive manufacturing of epoxy resins: materials, methods, and latest trends. Ind Eng Chem Res 2020;59:6375–90. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.9b06870.Search in Google Scholar

45. Latif, R, Wakeel, S, Khan, N, Siddiquee, A, Verma, S, Khan, Z. Surface treatments of plant fibers and their effects on mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced composites: a review. J Reinforc Plast Compos 2018;38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684418802022.Search in Google Scholar

46. Woo, K, Lim, JH, Han, C. Effect of defects on progressive failure behavior of plain weave textile composites. 2021;14:4363. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164363.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

47. Beaugrand, J, Guessasma, S, Maigret, J-E. Damage mechanisms in defected natural fibers. Sci Rep 2017;7:14041. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14514-6.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

48. Yan, L, Yuan, X. Improving the mechanical properties of natural fibre fabric reinforced epoxy composites by alkali treatment. J Reinforc Plast Compos 2012;31:425–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684412439494.Search in Google Scholar

49. Plenco. Basic thermoset part design suggestions. Wisconsin, USA: Plenco: Plastics Engineering Company; 2015.Search in Google Scholar

50. WWF (n.d.). Time to shift from pledges to action. Available from: https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/climate_and_energy_practice/cop27/ [Accessed 17 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar

51. Nations, U.: 17 goals to transform the world for persons with disabilities. Available from: https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/envision2030.html [Accessed 17 May 2022].Search in Google Scholar

52. Research, GV. GVR Report cover Natural Fiber Composites (NFC) Market Size, Share & Trends Report. Natural Fiber Composites (NFC) market size, share & trends analysis report by raw material, by matrix, by technology, by application, and segment forecasts 2018–2024; 2017:139 p.Search in Google Scholar

53. Luthra, P, Vimal, KK, Goel, V, Singh, R, Kapur, GS. Biodegradation studies of polypropylene/natural fiber composites. SN Appl Sci 2020;2:512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2287-1.Search in Google Scholar

54. Tchana Toffe, G, Oluwarotimi Ismail, S, Montalvão, D, Knight, J, Ren, G.. A scale-up of energy-cycle analysis on processing non-woven flax/PLA tape and triaxial glass fibre fabric for composites. J Manuf Mater Process 2019;3:92. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp3040092.Search in Google Scholar

55. Nugroho, WT, Dong, Y, Pramanik, A. Chapter 4 – 3D printing composite materials: a comprehensive review. In: Low, I-M, Dong, Y, editors. Compos Mater. Elsevier; 2021:65–115 pp.10.1016/B978-0-12-820512-9.00013-7Search in Google Scholar

56. Lee, CH, Sapuan, SM, Hassan, MR. Thermal analysis of kenaf fiber reinforced floreon biocomposites with magnesium hydroxide flame retardant filler. Polym Compos 2018;39:869–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.24010.Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2022-04-14
Accepted: 2022-06-21
Published Online: 2022-09-14

© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Reviews
  3. Effect of sugarcane bagasse on thermal and mechanical properties of thermoplastic cassava starch/beeswax composites
  4. Investigation on impact properties of different type of fibre form: hybrid hemp/glass and kenaf/glass composites
  5. Material selection and conceptual design in natural fibre composites
  6. Fundamental study of commercial polylactic acid and coconut fiber/polylactic acid filaments for 3D printing
  7. Amine compounds post-treatment on formaldehyde emission and properties of urea formaldehyde bonded particleboard
  8. Properties of plybamboo manufactured from two Malaysian bamboo species—
  9. Mechanical performance and failure characteristics of cross laminated timber (CLT) manufactured from tropical hardwoods species
  10. Effect of stacking sequence on tensile properties of glass, hemp and kenaf hybrid composites
  11. Flexural analysis of hemp, kenaf and glass fibre-reinforced polyester resin
  12. Manufacturing defects of woven natural fibre thermoset composites
  13. Fumaric acid: fermentative production, applications and future perspectives
  14. Modeling, simulation and mixing time calculation of stirred tank for nanofluids using partially-averaged Navier–Stokes (PANS) k u  − ϵ u turbulence model
  15. Malic acid: fermentative production and applications
  16. Biotic farming using organic fertilizer for sustainable agriculture
  17. An overview about the approaches used in the production of alpha-ketoglutaric acid with their applications
  18. Conscientiousness of environmental concepts in sustainable development and ecological conservation
  19. Biochar: its characteristics application and utilization of on environment
  20. Biofuel as an alternative energy source for environmental sustainability
  21. Evaluation of the crystal structures of metal(II) 2-fluorobenzoate complexes
  22. Role of science in environmental conservation leading to sustainable development
  23. The phytotherapeutic potential of commercial South African medicinal plants: current knowledge and future prospects
  24. Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in East African water resources: progress, challenges, and future
  25. Embedding systems thinking in tertiary chemistry for sustainability
  26. Clean technology for sustainable development by geopolymer materials
  27. Role of semiconductor photo catalysts on mask pollution management
  28. An overview of mechanical and corrosion properties of aluminium matrix composites reinforced with plant based natural fibres
  29. Physical and mechanical properties of Acacia mangium plywood after sanding treatment
  30. Simple naturally occurring β-carboline alkaloids – role in sustainable theranostics
  31. A SWOT analysis of artificial intelligence in diagnostic imaging in the developing world: making a case for a paradigm shift
  32. Health in poultry- immunity and microbiome with regard to a concept of one health
https://doi.org/10.1515/psr-2022-0077
Keywords for this article
defects; manufacturing process; natural fibre composite; thermoset composites; woven fibre

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Reviews
  3. Effect of sugarcane bagasse on thermal and mechanical properties of thermoplastic cassava starch/beeswax composites
  4. Investigation on impact properties of different type of fibre form: hybrid hemp/glass and kenaf/glass composites
  5. Material selection and conceptual design in natural fibre composites
  6. Fundamental study of commercial polylactic acid and coconut fiber/polylactic acid filaments for 3D printing
  7. Amine compounds post-treatment on formaldehyde emission and properties of urea formaldehyde bonded particleboard
  8. Properties of plybamboo manufactured from two Malaysian bamboo species—
  9. Mechanical performance and failure characteristics of cross laminated timber (CLT) manufactured from tropical hardwoods species
  10. Effect of stacking sequence on tensile properties of glass, hemp and kenaf hybrid composites
  11. Flexural analysis of hemp, kenaf and glass fibre-reinforced polyester resin
  12. Manufacturing defects of woven natural fibre thermoset composites
  13. Fumaric acid: fermentative production, applications and future perspectives
  14. Modeling, simulation and mixing time calculation of stirred tank for nanofluids using partially-averaged Navier–Stokes (PANS) k u  − ϵ u turbulence model
  15. Malic acid: fermentative production and applications
  16. Biotic farming using organic fertilizer for sustainable agriculture
  17. An overview about the approaches used in the production of alpha-ketoglutaric acid with their applications
  18. Conscientiousness of environmental concepts in sustainable development and ecological conservation
  19. Biochar: its characteristics application and utilization of on environment
  20. Biofuel as an alternative energy source for environmental sustainability
  21. Evaluation of the crystal structures of metal(II) 2-fluorobenzoate complexes
  22. Role of science in environmental conservation leading to sustainable development
  23. The phytotherapeutic potential of commercial South African medicinal plants: current knowledge and future prospects
  24. Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in East African water resources: progress, challenges, and future
  25. Embedding systems thinking in tertiary chemistry for sustainability
  26. Clean technology for sustainable development by geopolymer materials
  27. Role of semiconductor photo catalysts on mask pollution management
  28. An overview of mechanical and corrosion properties of aluminium matrix composites reinforced with plant based natural fibres
  29. Physical and mechanical properties of Acacia mangium plywood after sanding treatment
  30. Simple naturally occurring β-carboline alkaloids – role in sustainable theranostics
  31. A SWOT analysis of artificial intelligence in diagnostic imaging in the developing world: making a case for a paradigm shift
  32. Health in poultry- immunity and microbiome with regard to a concept of one health
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 13.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/psr-2022-0077/html
Scroll to top button