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Valorisation of Citrullus lanatus rind for eco-friendly lipstick: physicochemical characterisation and safety evaluation

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Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 18. März 2026
Pure and Applied Chemistry
Aus der Zeitschrift Pure and Applied Chemistry

Abstract

The utilisation of agro-industrial by-products for cosmetic purposes corresponds with the increasing demand for multifunctional formulations. This study investigated watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) rind as a source of bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties in lipstick. Sequential extraction using solvents demonstrated that ethanol most efficiently extracted polar bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and cardiac glycosides. A D-optimal mixture design methodology was utilised to optimise the proportions of oils and waxes, with a focus on melting point stability as a key formulation parameter. The optimised lipstick formulation exhibited a melting point of 52 °C, along with strong thermal resilience and physicochemical stability under varying storage circumstances. The lipstick maintained its shape, consistency, color, and fragrance after being stored under different temperatures (5 °C, 27 °C, and 40 °C) for three months, confirming its stability. Microbiological assays verified the absence of pathogenic pollutants, with a bacterial count of 50 cfu/g and yeast and mold counts below 100 cfu/g, which is well below the ≤1000 cfu/g limit set by ISO 17516:2014, ASEAN, and Malaysian cosmetic regulations. Heavy metal concentrations were within regulatory limits, with arsenic (3.68 ppm), lead (<0.04 ppm), cadmium (<0.02 ppm), and mercury (<0.02 ppm), confirming product safety. The use of phytochemicals possessing established antibacterial and antioxidant capabilities may synergistically enhance the formulation’s stability. The findings substantiate the practical use of watermelon rind extract in creating safe, thermally stable, and environmentally friendly lip cosmetics, presenting an innovative approach for bio-waste valorisation in the personal care industry.

Keywords: Citrullus lanatus rind; D-optimal mixture design; natural lipstick formulation; phytochemical analysis; VCCA 2025
Corresponding author: Asiah Abdullah, Material, Inorganic and Oleochemistry (MaterInOleo) Research Group, School of Chemistry and Environment, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 72000 Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, e-mail:

Funding source: Dana Penyelidikan Inovasi MARA

Award Identifier / Grant number: DPIM 2023

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all chemistry laboratory staff, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), SIRIM Malaysia and Universitas Islam Indonesia (UII) for the cooperation and research facilities provided. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the MARA research grant scheme Dana Penyelidikan Inovasi MARA 2023 (DPIM 2023), Malaysia for supporting this project.

  1. Research ethics: Not applicable.

  2. Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individuals included in this study.

  3. Author contributions: Muzakkir Fami – investigation & formal analysis. Mohd Norihwan Mohd Idaham – analysis. Nurazira Mohd Nor – editing. Sheikh Ahmad Izaddin Sheikh Mohd Ghazali – review. Gani Purwiandono – supervision and Asiah Abdullah – supervision, review & validation.

  4. Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: None declared.

  5. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  6. Research funding: Funding for this research was provided by MARA research grant scheme Dana Penyelidikan Inovasi MARA 2023 (DPIM 2023), Malaysia.

  7. Data availability: Not applicable.

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Received: 2025-11-03
Accepted: 2026-03-05
Published Online: 2026-03-18

© 2026 IUPAC & De Gruyter

https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2025-0668
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
Citrullus lanatus rind; D-optimal mixture design; natural lipstick formulation; phytochemical analysis; VCCA 2025
Heruntergeladen am 29.4.2026 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/pac-2025-0668/html?lang=de
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