Internet of Things in Indian Information Resource Centres: An Empirical Study of Institutions of National Importance

2.1 Conceptual Framework and Structure of IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a key player in modern technology which facilitates to interconnect physical objects to sense, collect and communicate the data with minimal human intervention. These objects or things can be converted into capable real-time data exchanging digital components with the help of sensors, actuators, and software (Gubbi et al. 2013; Sheeja and Mathew 2019; Veeraiah et al. 2022). Kevin Ashton who imagined this concept in 1999 and considered as the founder of this innovative thought (Firouzi et al. 2020; Gubbi et al. 2013; Li et al. 2015; Mehmood et al. 2016; Olson et al. 2015; Zafari et al. 2016). Since then, IoT has been progressed as a necessity for creating smart systems for our better life in various sectors such as healthcare, industries, smart cities, agriculture, and sustainable development. IoT basically relies on sensor oriented architecture and functions autonomously on enabled uniquely identifiable smart devices (Gubbi et al. 2013; Miorandi et al. 2012). This also supports in connecting even nonliving objects with humans and establish the communication for data exchange and better analysis (Nie 2017).

The wireless technologies like Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), the advent of IPv6, RFID, raid development in embedded computing systems and digital devices have been driving force for the advancement of IoT, which is considered as essential expertise in the fourth industrial revolution (Deshpande and Sajana 2020; Xu et al. 2014). Other supporting strategies like laser scanners, infrared sensors, energy monitoring modules, internet protocols and the beacons have been also contributing to the scalability of IoT around the globe (Pujar and Satyanarayana 2015; Xi et al. 2022). Mainly, internet is playing a key role in connecting various of these objects and purposes ensuring a responsive data flow (Nie 2017). IoT works characteristically based on several defined layers and stages such as identification, tracking, communicating, data sharing, and service management. Each defined layer will be employed for different roles like sensing, transmitting, data processing, and resulting (Liang 2020). The effective implantation of IoT ensures the ecosystem of all these well-defined layers and proper integration of devices for achieving desired smart results (Rajiv 2024).

2.2 IoT as a Driving Force for Smart Libraries Transformation

The modern libraries are more excited and focused on integrating IoT kind of technologies into their environments after library automation momentum. This desirous shift can ensure the robust routine activities, smart inventory management, personalized centric information services, responsive ecosystems and authenticated accessibility to resources (Hoy 2015; Xi et al. 2022). It is observed that RFID is the leading and forefront at this stage for integrating IoT into library systems for regular activities like smart circulation kiosks, real-time resource monitoring, and user authentication (Liang 2020; Mohammadi & Yegane 2018; Nie 2017). This technology is also expanding beyond regular activities like better utilization of energy resources, tailored and selective user alerts, and space management (Bansal et al. 2018; Wójcik 2016). Using mobile as a centric point in this context also brings innovative opportunities like creating navigations within library premises, online payments, tracking of assets, smart memberships and user friendly accessibility to library resources (Asim et al. 2023; De Sarkar 2022; Hoy 2015; Mishra 2014; Mondal 2021; Sarmah 2015; Sheeja and Mathew 2019).

Considering the ample amount of scope in adopting IoT technologies into library ecosystem, the RFID is the only tool which has been widely concentrated so far by developing countries for enhancing their security systems and circulation activities (Asim et al. 2022, 2023, 2024; Eiriemiokhale and James 2023; Hussain and Ahmad 2021). Technologically advanced and proactive institutes have been actively exploring and expanding the adoption of IoT in their systems, particularly in the areas such as real-time energy optimization, automated inventory management and intelligent access control (Bansal et al. 2018; Li 2014; Liang 2020). Especially, the academic libraries adopting hybrid model infrastructure that involves digital accessibility with the physical resources while IoT can play a crucial role in facilitating seamless accessibility and better user engagement with the resources, introducing smart ID cards, cloud based catalogs and real-time notifications (Chiu and Wong 2023; Dei 2020; Pujar and Satyanarayana 2015; Sabanci et al. 2018). Another sphere in this line is, creating smart building systems for ensuring the efficient usage of physical infrastructure and energy resources for future sustainability. The addition of IoT effectively in library buildings can achieve the right usage of energy resources and maintaining proper atmosphere by managing temperature, humidity lighting, water usage, and energy consumption (Kumar 2023; Monti et al. 2019; Xie et al. 2019).

The researchers’ observations on IoT adoption in Asian libraries confirms that isolated initiatives are being taken up instead of collaborative or collective efforts for implementing IoT technology in libraries. This emphasis on the importance of strategic planning, collaborations and policy making for unlocking the potentiality of IoT in libraries (Cheung et al. 2023; Hussain and Ahmad 2021; Upala and Wong 2019). The collaboration with professionals, stakeholders and understating the user demands are the crucial steps and strategy for ethical and effective implantation of these technologies (Rashid 2024). Furthermore, technologies like Software Defined Networking (SDN) combined with RFID provides affordable, scalable options for automation, monitoring, and service customization in academic libraries (Xu et al. 2024).

2.3 Challenges in Embracing IoT in Libraries

The factors and challenges that are hindering the successful and effective implementation of IoT in libraries have been stated by many previous studies. Financial constraint is the major obstacle that is due to the highly expensive IoT devices, systems, and software licenses compare to other constraints (Bansal et al. 2018). The lack of standardized protocols to implement this kind of latest technologies also another concern, where issues with incompatibility between different systems supplied by different vendors may pose challenges and further leads to data security breach and unauthorized access (Hoy 2015). Sometimes, the hesitation among library professionals shifting from traditional setups into intelligent systems raising concerns the future relevance of physical library spaces (Bansal et al. 2018). In addition, the barriers like limited technology infrastructure, lack of integrated networking, management interest, and environmental factors also restricts in welcoming new technologies like IoT (Igbinovia and Okuonghae 2021). For example, a study reveals that Pakistani university libraries majorly faced the challenges such as financial and technical limitations, poor network architecture, and isolated projects across the country in adopting IoT (Asim et al. 2022). There are some more additional factors associated as limitations like proper awareness of IoT technologies among library professionals, unstable electricity supply, lack of essential equipment and resistance to change from traditional practices (Asim et al. 2024; Rahman and Islam 2019; Saha and Roknuzzaman 2024). These shall be addressed with the visionary leadership of libraries, administrative support, technical expertise, establishing institutional policies, investing on staff training, involving stakeholders, strengthening the digital infrastructure and strategic planning through which the full potential of IoT can be unleashed and achieve greater operational efficiency (Khan et al. 2022).

7.1 Research Approach and Sampling

The present study adopts an exploratory research approach as IoT remains a quite new concept for IRCs, particularly in developing countries like India. The primary objective is to examine the level of IoT adoption and implementation in the IRCs of selected INIs located in South India. While the study focuses on South Indian INIs, this scope was intentional to capture region-specific insights. Findings may not be generalizable nationally but they provide a focused valuable understanding for similar contexts. The study population consisted of 18 INIs libraries across five South Indian states. These institutions were purposefully selected based on their status as INIs and their relevance to the research focus.

7.2 Data Collection Tool and Validation

To ensure content validity, the questionnaire was reviewed multiple times by senior professor i.e., the research supervisor and subject experts on the doctoral committee for clarity, relevance, and appropriateness. Items that did not align with the study’s objectives were eliminated or refined. Additional feedback was obtained from colleagues with experience in cross-sectional studies. Based on these expert reviews, necessary refinements were made, including the elimination of irrelevant, or redundant items. The final version of the questionnaire consisted of two main sections: the first section collected demographic details of the respondents, and the second section focused on IoT-related practices in the services and activities of IRCs of INIs. Responses were recorded using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 5 to 1.

7.3 Data Collection

Quantitative data were collected using a structured questionnaire. The target respondents were the heads or in-charges or managers of the selected IRCs. The researcher conducted physical visits to administer the questionnaire and collected responses from INIs located in Karnataka. For INIs located outside Karnataka, the same questionnaire was converted into a Google Form and distributed via email to library managers. Given the wide geographical distribution of the institutions, the online approach provided an efficient and timely method for data collection (Frippiat et al. 2010). After multiple follow-ups, 16 libraries out of 18 responded yielding a high response rate of 88.88 %. All responses were obtained voluntarily.

7.4 Reliability Testing

The reliability of the questionnaire was ensured using Cronbach’s alpha test. The Cronbach’s alpha (α) value was tested using the tool IBM SPSS to assess the internal consistency of the questionnaire items. A value greater than 0.70 was considered acceptable for reliability (Hair et al. 2013). Before data collection, expert evaluation confirmed the content validity. The Cronbach alpha coefficient test for the 44-item questionnaire confirmed α = 0.863, indicating a high level of internal consistency. The test was applied to six key constructs: user-centric IoT services (7 items, α = 0.714), IoT in daily routines (5 items, α = 0.738), inventory and access management (5 items, α = 0.852), mobile IoT applications (6 items, α = 0.792), IoT-enabled building maintenance (8 items, α = 0.731), and challenges in implementation (13 items, α = 0.913). Each construct consisted of multiple items measured on a five-point Likert scale, designed to capture the extent of IoT adoption and practices. These items were grouped based on conceptual similarity, which allowed for the assessment of internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha.

7.5 Data Analysis

The study analyzed 16 (88.88 %) valid responses using IBM SPSS and Microsoft Excel. Descriptive statistics was employed to measure the mean, standard deviation, and percentage distribution of variables and summarized the dataset. As part of inferential statistics, the Kruskal–Wallis H test was applied to assess the significant differences across demographic categories and differentiate patterns in IoT adoption and related challenges among institutes. Kruskal–Wallis H test, as a non-parametric alternative suitable for comparing three or more independent groups, which evaluates differences in group distributions based on ranked data (DATAtab Team n.d.; Team SixSigma 2025). The integrated use of descriptive and inferential techniques facilitated the identification of meaningful trends and relationships within the survey results.

7.6 Ethical Considerations

The participants’ identities were kept confidential, and the data was used strictly for academic purposes with their informed consent.

8.1 Characteristics of Heads/In-Charges/Managers of IRCs

A total of 16 Heads/In-Charges/Managers of IRCs of INIs located in South India have participated in the study as presented in Table 1. The institutions represented include IITs (31.25 %), NITs (31.25 %), IIMs (12.5 %), IISc (6.25 %), and AIIMS institutions (18.75 %). Among them, a significant majority were male (93.75 %), with only one female respondent (6.25 %). The designations of the respondents varied, with most serving as Librarians (43.75 %), followed by other managerial positions, including Deputy Librarian, Chief Library Officer, and Professor In-Charge. 12.5 % of Library and Information Assistants have responded since the chief library officer’s post was vacant due to administrative reasons. In terms of educational qualifications, more than half of the respondents (56.25 %) held a Ph.D., while others held M.Phil. (18.75 %) or a postgraduate degree in Library and Information Science (18.75 %).

Regarding professional experience, half of the respondents (50 %) reported over 20 years of total work experience. In contrast, 62.5 % had been working in their current institutions for less than 5 years, indicating significant professional mobility among IRC leaders.

8.2 Year of Establishment and User Strength of IRCs

Figure 1 and Table 2 shows an analysis of 16 institutional IRCs reveals a clear correlation between the year of establishment and the strength of their user base. Older institutions such as IISc Bengaluru, established in 1911, and IIT Madras (1958) reported the highest user numbers, with IIT Madras exceeding 10,000 users. Overall, institutions established before 1970 (n = 6) noted user strengths in the range of 5001–10,000. In contrast, institutions founded in the late 20th to early 21st century (n = 2), such as IIM Kerala (1996) and IIT Telangana (2008), display moderate user bases typically between 1001 and 10,000.

Figure 1:

User strength of IRCs (n = 16). Source(s): created by the authors.

The most recent institutions, established after 2015 (n = 8), are still in the developmental phase in terms of user engagement. Among them, five IRCs reported fewer than 5000 users, while three have user counts below 1000. These numbers reflect the typical growth trajectory of academic institutions, where newer institutions are gradually scaling up their infrastructure and outreach. This trend underscores a positive relationship between institutional maturity and IRC user strength, suggesting that older IRCs benefit from long-established academic networks and larger campus populations. Meanwhile, the newer institutions equipped with modern infrastructure and adaptive academic programs are poised for future growth and expanded library utilization.

8.3 Duration of IoT Implementation Across Institutions

Figure 2 illustrates the duration of IoT implementation across participating institutions, categorized into three-time spans. The highest number of institutions (n = 7, 43.75 %) have implemented IoT systems within the last 2–5 years, reflecting a growing momentum in recent adoption. This is followed by 5 institutions (31.25 %) that have introduced IoT technologies less than 2 years ago, indicating a rising trend in new implementations. Meanwhile, four institutes (25 %) reported IoT adoption for more than 5 years, highlighting a smaller group of early adopters. The trend underscores a significant increase in IoT adoption over the past 5 years, aligning with broader digital transformation efforts in academia and research infrastructures.

Figure 2:

Duration of IoT implementation. Source(s): created by the authors.

8.4 Status of IoT Adoption in INIs Libraries for User-Centric Services

As depicted in Table 3, an analysis of 16 INIs shows high adoption of basic IoT services in libraries, particularly auto updates on new arrivals/events (Mean = 4.75), transaction notifications (M = 4.44), and QR code technology (M = 4.13), indicating widespread use and institutional consensus. Advanced or assistive services such as VR/AR (M = 2.19), 3D printing (M = 2.00), and text-to-speech tools (M = 2.69) showed limited interest, likely due to infrastructure or funding challenges. Kruskal–Wallis H test results (p = >0.05 across all services) indicate no significant difference in IoT adoption levels among institutional types (IITs, IIMs, IISc, NITs, AIIMs), suggesting a uniform adoption pattern regardless of the category of institution. The analysis reveals that basic IoT services are well-integrated across INIs, indicating widespread acceptance and implementation. Although advanced tools such as virtual reality, 3D printing, and assistive technologies are promising and remain underutilized across institutions. Overall, adoption trends are consistent regardless of institutional type, reflecting shared priorities and similar stages of technological development.

8.5 IoT-Enabled Activities Supporting Daily Library Routines

The adoption of IoT in routine library functions shows varying levels of integration across the 16 surveyed INIs as data presented in Table 4. Among these, self-service systems for check-in, checkout, and renewals (Mean = 4.00) and usage analysis and reporting tools (M = 3.94) are the most widely implemented, reflecting their practical benefits in improving operational efficiency and user autonomy.

Self-sorting of books (M = 3.19) shows moderate adoption, likely due to infrastructure demands. Meanwhile, automatic feedback systems (M = 2.63) and especially drone-based book delivery (M = 1.50) remain in early or experimental stages, with limited adoption across institutions. Kruskal–Wallis H test results (all p > 0.05) suggest no statistically significant difference in adoption levels of these activities across different institutional types (e.g., IITs, NITs, IIMs), indicating a uniform pattern of implementation.

8.6 IoT for Inventory Management and Authorized Access in Libraries

The Table 5 displays the application of IoT technologies in library inventory control and access management shows a blend of moderate to high adoption across the 16 Institutes of INIs. The most widely adopted service is user walk-ins tracking (Mean = 4.44), suggesting strong reliance on monitoring user engagement. RFID-based security systems (M = 4.06) also show high usage, reflecting their effectiveness in resource protection and theft prevention. Moderate adoption is seen in features such as tracking resource movement (M = 3.50), handling misplaced books (M = 3.44), and authenticated access using cards or biometrics (M = 3.19). These tools support operational control but may be constrained by technological or budgetary limitations. The Kruskal–Wallis H test reveals no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) across institution types for any of the technologies, indicating uniform adoption trends irrespective of institutional classification.

8.7 Mobile IoT-Based Services in IRCs

The integration of mobile-based IoT services in IRCs reflects selective adoption patterns as shown in Table 6. Among the services assessed, online fine payment stands out with the highest adoption (Mean = 4.13), indicating strong acceptance of convenient, user-friendly mobile features. Other mobile services such as asset movement control (M = 3.06), monitoring IoT-enabled appliances (M = 2.81), seat/discussion room reservations (M = 2.75), and bookshelf navigation (M = 2.75) show moderate adoption levels, suggesting these tools are in early to developing stages of implementation. Self-guided virtual tours (M = 2.44) have the lowest adoption.

The Kruskal–Wallis H test found a statistically significant difference in the adoption of monitoring and controlling IoT-enabled appliances across institution types (p = 0.04), while all other services showed no significant variation (p > 0.05). This shows a differentiated approach in how IRCs handle mobile IoT applications, possibly influenced by infrastructure or administrative priorities.

8.8 IoT-Based Smart Appliances for Building Maintenance

Table 7 emphasis on the adoption of IoT-enabled appliances for building maintenance in IRCs varies widely by function. Fire detection and automatic alarm systems show the highest adoption (Mean = 4.31), indicating a strong institutional emphasis on safety and emergency preparedness. This service also approaches statistical significance across institution types (p = 0.05), suggesting some variation in its implementation. Other adopted technologies include temperature and humidity control systems (M = 3.94) and smart security gates (M = 3.88), pointing to growing interest in environmental comfort and facility security. In contrast, more advanced or infrastructure solutions like smart walls (M = 1.63), smart windows (M = 2.00), and smart door locks (M = 2.38) have low adoption, likely due to high implementation costs or technical limitations. Across most services, the Kruskal–Wallis test shows no significant differences (p > 0.05) in adoption among different institution types, reinforcing the broader pattern of shared technological progress across IRCs.

8.9 Use of General IoT Appliances in IRCs

Figure 3 and Table 8 portray the deployment status of general IoT appliances across IRCs, showing varying degrees of adoption. Smart surveillance systems exhibit high integration (43.75 %) and partial usage (31.25 %), reflecting strong prioritization of security technologies. Smart water dispensers are also fairly well-integrated, with 37.5 % of IRCs having fully adopted them and another 25 % implementing them partially. Similarly, smart hand sanitizer machines show partial adoption in 37.5 % of IRCs, indicating moderate emphasis on hygiene tech. In contrast, smart hand dryers, smart fans, and smart thermostats show limited adoption, with many libraries either still exploring these technologies or not using them at all. Notably, smart thermostats have the highest non-adoption rate (50 %), highlighting perceived relevance as a potential barrier.

Figure 3:

Practice of general IoT appliances in IRCs. Source(s): created by the authors.

8.10 Challenges in Embracing IoT in IRCs

Table 9 reveals the most significant barrier to IoT implementation in IRCs was the high cost of IoT devices (Mean = 4.13), indicating strong concern over financial feasibility. Security and privacy issues (Mean = 3.69) and lack of a standard policy or strategic plan (Mean = 3.50) were also major concerns, reflecting institutional apprehensions around governance and data protection. Other moderately rated challenges include a lack of a highly networked environment, insufficient manpower, and limited management interest, suggesting infrastructural and administrative gaps. Meanwhile, issues like fear of new technologies and lack of leadership received lower concern ratings (Means < 3.00), implying they are not perceived as primary hurdles. The Kruskal–Wallis H test revealed no statistically significant differences across institution types (p > 0.05), indicating these challenges are commonly faced across INIs regardless of classification.

9.1 Basic IoT Services: High Adoption and Uniformity

Services such as auto-notifications for transactions, updates on new arrivals or events, and the use of QR codes for resource description demonstrate high mean values (≥4.00) and lower standard deviations, indicating strong agreement and consistency across IRCs. These services offer immediate benefits in terms of user engagement and operational efficiency, likely contributing to their widespread implementation. The significance of these services in enhancing circulation activities and communication aligns with findings from prior studies emphasizing the value of automation in improving user experience in libraries (Asim et al. 2022).

9.2 Advanced and Mobile IoT Tools: Emerging but Underutilized

Technologies such as Virtual/Augmented Reality (M = 2.19), 3D printing (M = 2.00), and smart infrastructure (e.g., smart doors, windows, and walls) exhibit lower mean scores and higher variability, suggesting irregular implementation and limited user exposure. Similarly, mobile-based services like virtual tours, IoT appliance control, and navigation aids remain underdeveloped in most IRCs. Despite their potential, these tools are likely constrained by high initial costs, integration complexities, and a lack of trained personnel, issues previously identified in the literature as barriers to digital transformation in libraries (Gupta and Singh 2018; Liang and Chen 2018).

9.3 Inventory Management and Authorized Access: Moderate Progress

The use of RFID systems and tracking of daily walk-ins has seen moderate to high adoption (M = 4.06 and 4.44, respectively), indicating growing interest in using IoT for security and resource management. However, technologies such as facial recognition for access control show lower mean values, highlighting privacy concerns and infrastructural limitations. These findings echo broader concerns in the domain regarding data security and user consent in IoT implementations (Igbinovia and Okuonghae 2021).

9.4 General IoT Appliances: Uneven Implementation

The adoption of IoT appliances for general utilities like smart surveillance systems and smart water dispensers confirms partial or fully implementation across institutions, whereas appliances like thermostats, hand dryers and smart fans, remain less prevalent. These variations likely stem from institutional differences in budget allocations, operational focus, or perceived user needs. This highlights that many IRCs are still in the nascent phase of integrating smart infrastructure into their physical environments.

9.5 Challenges to IoT Integration

This study identified the major barriers for implementing IoT are high cost involved, lack of data security and privacy concerns and strategic planning, that have recorded mean values more than 3.50 in a 5-point scale. Subsequently, lack of management support, inefficient leadership, and absence of technical expertise further limiting the transformation of libraries, that are aligned with observations made by (Igbinovia and Okuonghae 2021) who emphasize that the successful integration of IoT technologies in library settings is contingent upon institutional readiness, visionary leadership, and the presence of enabling policy frameworks.

9.6 Statistical Uniformity Across Institutes

The results of data analysis and Kruskal–Wallis H test confirms the consistent pattern of IoT adoption across institutions irrespective of institutional classification, indicating mean values more than 0.05 among the constructs such as daily routine activities, user services, inventory management, and smart building appliances. Also observed similar challenges and opportunities in their efforts toward digital transformation.

10.1 Vision and Strategic Planning

A well-defined strategic planning and vision towards innovative practices can ensure the successful adoption of IoT within libraries. This needs a critical and situational analysis of infrastructure availability, measurable objectives, positive mindset, and an efficient leadership. The clear-cut roadmap for achieving the defined vision is much important that involves the technology selection, structured and sustainable approach to implement innovative technologies (Boateng et al. 2025; Pant et al. 2022).

10.2 Data Security and Privacy

The personal data privacy and security is a major concern in this movement, failing to which may lead to ethical adversities. Therefore, assuring the well-defined cybersecurity frameworks, and policies can protect the sensitive data and ensure ethical handling of data. This strategic move shall compliance with the integrity and credibility (Ram et al. 2023).

10.3 Empowering the Library Workforce

The enhancement of technical expertise and human resource capacity building can be a great move in implementing IoT systems in library settings that comprises workshops, trainings, collaborative learnings and experiments, and sharing of ideas among professionals (Abo-Seada 2019).

10.4 Leadership and Change Management

Efficient leadership is essential to drive innovation and achieve any change. Leaders must be acquainted with technological awareness with a user-centric approach, encouraging experimentation and balancing technological advancement with ethical and service considerations.

10.5 Encouraging Innovation and Experimentation

Creating an atmosphere for sharing and promoting new ideas, supporting pilot projects, debates and conceptualizations among professionals may lead to better learning outcomes and such a culture bring innovative and context specific solutions (Bayani et al. 2017).

10.6 Sustainable Financing for Smart Libraries

As study identified, the insufficient fund grant is a major concern especially in public and academic institutes. This shall be addressed exploring other strategies such as sponsorship from the stakeholders, partnerships, framing long term goals, project assignments to students with technical backgrounds, and securing the government grants.

10.7 Framing Policy and Regulatory Support

Policy frameworks and guidelines at institutional level and country level, shall ensure the ethical and effective implementation of any emerging technologies like IoT. These frameworks should address critical aspects such as procurement procedures, data management, system compatibility, and mechanisms for ongoing improvements. Such policies can support immediate implementation needs, while also fostering long-term strategic planning, helping libraries remain agile in the face of evolving technology and institutional demands (Henriques et al. 2019).