Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
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Yanjie Ren
Abstract
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) can provide excellent, reliable, and effective solutions for anti-microbial, drug-loading, and other purposes due to their extraordinary physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Different methods have been used in the synthesis and characterization of AgNPs, and AgNPs have been applied in various fields of biomedicine, including dentistry, oncology, diabetology, neurodegenerative disorders, and so on. However, the cytotoxicity of AgNPs has not been solved during their application, making them controversial. The aim of this review is to summarize the capabilities, synthesis, and characterization methods, and the application of AgNPs in various biomedicine fields. In addition, the toxicity of AgNPs is explicated, and the methods of enhancing the benefit properties and reducing the toxicity of AgNPs are demonstrated. In the end, the perspective of AgNPs’ research and application are proposed for the great potential in biomedicine contributing to human health.
1 Introduction
Nanotechnology is a fast-growing emerging technology, providing materials in nanometer size with excellent physicochemical and mechanical properties. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are metal silver particles with a small size of 1–100 nm, large surface area volume ratio, superior carrier capacity, high reactivity, and flexible surface [1]. Silver is an ancient and safe antibacterial agent. Humans have a long history of using silver to fight bacterial infections. It was used in ointments and dressings for burns as silver nitrate or silver sulfadiazine [2,3]. With the advent of the era of nanotechnology, it is meaningful to explore the application of the antibacterial ability of AgNPs. Meanwhile, they are also popular in the food packaging industry, electronic manufacturing industry, and agriculture [4,5,6].
AgNPs, owing to their distinguished physicochemical properties, are the most popular and widely used nanoparticles (NPs) [7]. There are various biological activities of AgNPs, such as antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antioxidant, anticancer, and antidiabetic [8,9,10,11,12,13]. AgNPs, the new antibacterial agent, are considered against a variety of pathogenic and infectious microorganisms, including multidrug-resistant bacteria. To be specific, AgNPs have outstanding antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria [14]. In this review, we concluded the application of AgNPs in dentistry, such as the prevention of caries, restoration of tooth defects, root canal therapy, periodontology, implantology, orthodontic brackets, oral cancer, as well as its outstanding performance in the treatment of other cancers, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and other biomedical fields [15]. In addition, we delved into the cytotoxicity of AgNPs and proposed the future research directions to explore the integration of AgNPs with biomedicine.
2 Capabilities of AgNPs
AgNPs have made remarkable contributions to biomedicine and processed high prospects for commercial use due to their antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antidiabetic activities [7]. Their possible mechanisms of action are shown in Figures 1–3.
Antibacterial mechanism: (1) AgNPs increased membrane permeability and induced leakage of cell contents, leading to cell death. (2) Oxidative stress changes the structure and function of DNA and proteins, causes damage to intracellular machinery, and activates the apoptotic pathway. (3) The release of silver ions, due to their size and charge, can change metabolic pathways and genetic materials after interacting with cell components. (4) The interaction between AgNPs and sulfur-containing proteins in bacterial cell walls leads to the structural damage of cell wall rupture. (5) ROS attack proteins.
![Figure 2
Antifungal mechanism of AgNPs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [28] (Copyright 2022 Frontiers).](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0030/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2024-0030_fig_002.jpg)
Antifungal mechanism of AgNPs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [28] (Copyright 2022 Frontiers).
![Figure 3
Antiviral mechanism of AgNPs. Reproduced with permission from ref. [31] (Copyright 2021 MDPI).](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0030/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2024-0030_fig_003.jpg)
Antiviral mechanism of AgNPs. Reproduced with permission from ref. [31] (Copyright 2021 MDPI).
2.1 Antimicrobial activity
2.1.1 Antibacterial capability
Nowadays, the research on the antibacterial mechanism of AgNPs is not sufficient, and the regularization of different bacteria may be distinguished in Figure 1. Taken as an example, the oral cavity is a complex environment inhabiting a variety of microorganisms. For example, Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans), Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Fusobacterium nucleatum are the main etiological agents of caries and periodontal diseases [16]. Zorraquin-Pena et al. [17] demonstrated the antimicrobial activity against oral pathogens of AgNPs. Moreover, some studies found that the inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus was caried out by disturbing respiratory chain dehydrogenase, interfering with bacterial growth and cell metabolism; the inhibition of Escherichia coli was done by destroying the integrity of the bacteria by depolarization and membrane instability; the inhibition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by AgNPs was done through the production of free radicals that destroyed the cell membrane, and the interaction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) with the cell wall and cell membrane [18,19,20].
Over the past few decades, the frequent and widespread use of antibiotics led to the antibiotic-resistant bacteria development. Resistance to pathogenic microorganisms threatened global public health [21]. Research has found that the combination of AgNPs with conventional antibiotics could improve the antibacterial effect and reduce the use of antibiotics to hinder the development of drug resistance of pathogenic bacteria [22].
The development of drug resistance was done by changing the target side, degrading the enzyme, reducing membrane permeability, and activating the efflux pumps [23,24]. Bruna et al. [3] demonstrated that AgNPs can inhibit the growth of bacteria, showcasing an increased ability to penetrate their membranes with decreasing dimensions of NPs. Moreover, the antibacterial efficiency of AgNPs against Gram-negative bacteria was higher than that of Gram-positive bacteria.
2.1.2 Antifungal capability
The primary antifungal mechanism of AgNPs operates through structural modifications at the biofilm level. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the accumulation of reactive oxygen species in cells can trigger apoptosis. Furthermore, Babele et al. [25] discovered that AgNPs profoundly influence vital functions of fungal cells, including the regulation of the transcriptome, epigenome, and metabolome. Vazquez-Munoz et al. [26] considered AgNPs reduction process after the release of silver ions outside the fungus induced cell death. Rozhin et al. [27] demonstrated that potential antifungal mechanisms could be attributed to genes involved in maintaining cell wall or membrane integrity, entosis, vesicular transport activity, oxidative metabolism, cell respiration, and copper homeostasis (Figure 2).
2.1.3 Antiviral capability
AgNPs have high antiviral activity to inhibit virus infection or inactivate viruses, such as herpes simplex virus, respiratory syncytial virus, adenovirus type 3, and the influenza A virus [29,30], but the mechanism remains uncertain. AgNPs possess a large surface area and dominant size, promoting contact and penetration with viruses. AgNPs can adhere to the glycoprotein on the surface of viruses, interfere with the interaction between viruses and cell membranes, and prevent viruses from penetrating the cell membrane. They can also inhibit the nucleocapsid of the viral entity, ultimately destroying the viral genome and inhibiting its replication [29]. AgNPs exhibit antiviral potential, but it is still a challenge to design specific antiviral agents that only target viruses. It can also damage the viral lipid membrane, inhibit cellular replication, assembly, and release of virions, and have inhibitory effects at different stages of viral replication (Figure 3) [31,32].
2.2 Anti-inflammatory capability
Tyavambiza et al. [33] showed AgNPs had anti-inflammatory properties, as AgNPs decreased the levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α) in macrophages. Another study reported that the anti-inflammatory activity was equivalent to that of the standard anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac [34]. This suggested that AgNPs had the potential to become an anti-inflammatory drug to control chronic inflammatory diseases [35]. In a mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), Yang et al. [36] used folic acid-modified AgNPs to treat RA, which showed a strong therapeutic effect without tissue accumulation and appreciable long-term toxicity.
2.3 Delivery drugs/medication nanocarriers
Recently, nanoparticle drug delivery systems (NDDS) deserve extensive attention and further research [37]. Asl et al. [38] believed most synthetic or semi-synthetic anticancer drugs can be toxic due to their insoluble accumulation at the absorption site. Moreover, the hydrophobicity of traditional drug delivery has limited the use of anticancer drugs [39]. In this regard, NPs have advantages in size, representing a solution to overcome these drawbacks, so that they can interact with lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The use of NPs to synthesize drugs increases the solubility and surface stability of the compound, enabling them to be transported across membranes, increasing blood drug concentration, reducing drug dosage, and thereby improving the efficiency of drug delivery to the target organ or tissue [40].
2.4 Photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT)
PTT is the use of near-infrared light to induce heat therapy, PTT is also widely used in antibacterial therapy, but it has the disadvantage of excessive temperature damaging normal cells. Zhu et al. [41] combined a mixture of sodium alginate and AgNPs modified polydopamine NPs to prepare a new hydrogel that can treat bacterial infections at low temperatures. In addition, Chang et al. [42] proved that the nano-composite hydrogel functional wound dressing prepared by the combination of AgNPs and PTT could alleviate inflammation and promote the healing of infected skin wounds. Moreover, Ag-Te NPs synthesized by Ahn et al. [43] with Te nanorods can be used for the treatment of breast cancer in vitro and in vivo through the ablation of hyperthermic cancer cells by photothermal conversion and can play a role in eliminating breast tumor bacterial cells.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is to irradiate the lesion with a specific wavelength of laser, which can activate the photosensitive drugs selectively gathered in the lesion tissue and trigger a photochemical reaction to destroy the lesion [44]. PDT can effectively treat melanoma by coupling AgNPs with photosensitizer drug molecules, selectively induce apoptosis or necrosis of cancer cells, and target drug delivery to specific sites [45].
2.5 Others
The synthesized AgNPs can be used to detect X-ray exposure and enhancement doses for further application in the field of radiotherapy and diagnostics [46]. AgNPs have been proven to increase cancer cell oxidative stress, and cell membrane fluidity and cause apoptosis [47]. In particular, in the treatment of gliomas after radiation therapy, observe their effects on promoting apoptosis and anti-proliferation of gliomas. Arif et al. [47,48] demonstrated the potential of AgNPs in bone healing. They found that AgNPs can enhance cell mineralization and differentiation, indicating promising applications in bone regenerative therapy. Furthermore, AgNPs promote wound healing by infiltrating a thick peptidoglycan layer in Gram-positive bacteria and a thinner layer containing lipopolysaccharide and acid in Gram-negative bacteria [49].
3 Synthesis and characterization of AgNPs
With the deepening investigation on AgNPs and the expansion of the application scope, the demand for AgNPs is also growing steadily, and the approach of AgNPs synthesis has become a matter of issue. Different methods of AgNPs synthesis have been studied, mainly including physical, chemical, and biological routes. Among them, the biosynthesis method has been extensively explored in recent years due to its low cost and low toxicity. To detect the presence of AgNPs, the synthesized AgNPs were characterized by means of UV–Vis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR).
3.1 Physical synthesis
The physical method is to synthesize NPs from solid or atomized metallic silver to nanoscale utilizing laser ablation, ball milling, and sputtering to obtain stable AgNPs [3]. In general, the physical preparation uses physical energy to prepare AgNPs with fine-grained cycles. This method can effectively produce a large number of AgNPs in one process in ash form [50]. However, this synthesis requires external energy and complex equipment [51]. Although the physical synthesis method can produce plenty of AgNPs and the product is uniform, this method is costly, and there may be radiation [52]. Furthermore, it is still a major challenge to agglomerate with no capping agent or stabilizer.
3.2 Chemical synthesis
The chemical synthesis is lower in cost than the physical method, which can obtain NPs with clear spherical shapes, mainly including chemical reduction, electrochemistry, and sol–gel [53]. The materials of it require metal precursors, reducing agents, and stabilizers. The size of NPs is controlled by using capping agents, and their morphology is controlled by the growth and nucleation stages during the solution reduction process [50]. AgNPs with various shapes can be quickly obtained by chemical synthesis, but the use of irritating chemicals in the synthesis process may produce toxicity, which limits the application of AgNPs in medicine and may be harmful to the environment [51,54,55].
3.3 Biological synthesis
Biosynthesis is a method using reducing agents extracted from biological sources, which is noteworthy due to its fast, low-cost, and low-toxic effects on humans and the environment [56,57,58,59].
By multiple biotechnology tools, different natural resources are available, including fungi, bacteria, algae, viruses, plants, or their by-products such as proteins and lipids [60]. AgNPs from natural compounds like the bark of A. nilotica, aloe, lemongrass, Mentha, the aqueous leaf extract of Psidium guajava, and Coriandrum sativum are preferred because of their easier producing process and are cheaper and safer [56,61–64].
El-Naggar et al. [65] showed that AgNPs could be synthesized by reducing silver nitrate with phycoerythrin in cyanobacteria. Besides, the use of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi can induce the reduction required for metal nano synthesis and easily achieve high yield, providing an environmentally friendly and low-cost technology. For example, AgNPs can also be synthesized with Aspergillus sydowii and Beauveria bassiana [66,67]. Furthermore, it is achievable to use secondary metabolites to synthesize AgNPs, such as Curcumin, Streptomyces sp., and Rhodococcus rhodochrous [57,68,69].
Physical and chemical synthesis are mainly applied in AgNPs manufactured in large amounts for saving time. But the disadvantage was the possible production of toxic substances and environmental pollution [52]. Compared with others, biological synthesis is the easiest, the most non-toxic, and environmentally friendly method to produce high-quality NPs, which is still the most applied and investigated method nowadays. Overall, Biological synthesis is a promising alternative method for biocompatible stable NPs.
3.4 Characterization of AgNPs
The physicochemical properties of NPs on their behavior, biodistribution, safety, efficacy, etc., need to be embodied by characterizing AgNPs to evaluate the functional aspects of the synthetic particles [70]. Different methods have been used to study the characterizations of AgNPs, including the size, morphology, surface area, surface charge, surface coating, and agglomeration behavior in the media. In the synthesis of AgNPs, silver ions are often obtained by reducing AgNO3, and the way to detect the success of reduction is by the change in the color of the mixture to dark brown due to the excitation of surface plasmon vibrations in AgNPs [51]. The synthesis of AgNPs was confirmed by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), XRD, SEM, TEM, and FTIR. The optical absorption spectrum of metal NPs is mainly dominated by surface plasmon resonance and the absorption band is related to the particle size. XRD is one of the most widely used conventional techniques to characterize NPs to determine the crystal structure and morphology, including crystal structure, lattice parameters, phase properties, and crystal size [51]. The size, shape, and structure of the synthesized AgNPs are analyzed by SEM or TEM [51,71]. FTIR analysis is used to identify the functional groups in the compound and reveal functional groups actively participating in reduction [72]. Table 1 shows AgNPs characterization using UV-Vis, XRD, SEM, TEM, and FTIR.
AgNPs characterization using UV-Vis, XRD, SEM, TEM, and FTIR
| Methods | Observed indexes | Material | Results |
|---|---|---|---|
| UV-Vis | Absorption band | Curcumin | The maximum absorption peak at 430 nm [57] |
| Ziziphus Jujuba leaf | The spectrum band at 434 nm [73] | ||
| Five plant leaf extracts (Pine, Persimmon, Ginkgo, Magnolia and Platanus) | The maximum absorbance occurs at 430 nm [74] | ||
| Nocardiopsis sp. MBRC-1 | A strong and broad peak at 420 nm [75] | ||
| Trisodium citrate (TSC) as a reducing and stabilizing agent | One single extinction peak around 400 nm up to 425 nm [76] | ||
| Liquid phase pulsed laser ablation (LPPLA) in TSC solutions | Increased plasmon absorption at 400 nm [77] | ||
| XRD | AgNPs peaks at 2θ angles | Ziziphus Jujuba leaf | The average crystallite size of 6 nm [73] |
| Caesalpinia ferrea seed extract | 30–50 nm [78] | ||
| Pandanus odorifer leaf extract | 10–50 nm [71] | ||
| Coriandrum sativum L. | 11.9 nm [79] | ||
| Nocardiopsis sp. MBRC-1 | 45 ± 0.05 nm [75] | ||
| TSC as a reducing and stabilizing agent | 21.1 nm ± 2.9, T = 80° | ||
| 14.64 nm ± 2.3, T = 120° | |||
| 20.7 nm ± 2.8, T = 140° [76] | |||
| TEM | Images under TEM | Magnolia leaf Persimmon, Magnolia and Pine leaf | Spherical shape; average diameter of 32 nm [74] |
| Urtica dioica (Linn.) leaf extract | 20–30 nm [59] | ||
| Nocardiopsis sp. MBRC-1 | Spherical shape; average diameter of 45 nm [75] | ||
| LPPLA in TSC solutions | Nearly spherical shape;The average size of about 13 nm [77] | ||
| SEM | Images under SEM | Curcumin | The average size of 51.13 nm [57] |
| Coriandrum sativum L. | Ball shape [79] | ||
| TSC as a reducing and stabilizing agent | Near to spherical structure [76] | ||
| FTIR | IR spectrum | Nocardiopsis sp. MBRC-1 | The band at 2,923 and 2,853 cm−1 (C–H stretch) |
| 1,460 cm−1 (C–H bend) | |||
| 1,655 cm−1 (–C═C– stretch) | |||
| 685 cm−1 (–C═C–H:C–H bend) [75] | |||
| Coriandrum sativum L. | 3275.64 cm−1 (OH stretching) | ||
| 1632.43 cm−1 (C═O stretch) | |||
| 2919.43 cm−1 (C H extension and extension of alkanes with the C–H connection) | |||
| 1398.12 cm−1 (CH3 stretching) | |||
| 1237.86 cm−1 (C–O and amine vibrations) [79] | |||
| TSC as a reducing and stabilizing agent | 3,250 cm−1 (O–H bond) | ||
| 1,583 cm−1 (anti-symmetric COO– stretching) | |||
| 1,393 cm−1 (symmetric COO– stretching) [76] |
4 Application of AgNPs in various fields of biomedicine
Due to the excellent characteristics of AgNPs, the applications in biomedicine have developed rapidly such as dentistry, cancer, diabetes, and neurodegeneration. The oral cavity is an external environment with enormous microorganisms living in it. Dental caries and periodontitis are common oral diseases, and they will occur when the microenvironment niche is disturbed. Besides, it can also be used as a drug carrier for examination, diagnosis, and treatment (Figure 4, Table 2).
![Figure 4
Application of AgNPs in various fields of biomedicine. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [80,81] (Copyright 2022 MDPI and WILEY 2017).](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0030/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2024-0030_fig_004.jpg)
Functions of AgNPs in various biomedical fields
| Function | Medical fields | Diseases | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anti-caries and anti-bacteria | Oral medicine | Dental Caries | [82–91] |
| Anti-bacteria and anti-drug resistance | Periodontal and peri-implantitis | [92–99] | |
| Anti-bacteria and reduce the surface sharpness and friction | Orthodontics | [100–103] | |
| Anti-proliferation, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis-promoting effects | Oral cancer | [104–113] | |
| Inhibit carbohydrate-digesting, key enzymes associated with diabetes, and promote wound healing | Endocrine system | Diabetes mellitus | [114–118] |
| Inhibitory effect on amyloid fiber accumulation and biosensor construction | Nervous system | Neurodegenerative diseases | [119–128] |
| Small, highly targeted, and crossing the BBB | NDDS | Cancer and neurological disorders | [37,38,39,40] |
| Targeted therapy, drug resistance, cytotoxicity, and radiosensitivity | Cancer | PCa, ccRCC | [129–133] |
| Antibacterial activity, anti-inflammatory effect, and drug carrier effect. | Wound coating systems | Wound | [134–138] |
| Promote osteogenesis | Bone trauma | Bone healing | [139–142] |
| Toxicity | — | CVDs; neurodegenerative toxicity | [139–141] |
4.1 Dentistry
With the ability of antibacterial and anti-inflammation, AgNPs are widely used in dentistry, including dental caries therapy, periodontal and peri-implantitis prevention, orthodontic therapy, and oral cancer therapy.
4.1.1 Dental caries
Dental caries not only affect oral health but also associate with systemic and inflammation-related diseases, like diabetes and respiratory diseases [82,83]. Therefore, the prevention and treatment of dental caries are common oral health problems, which have attracted wide attention. Early childhood caries (ECC) is the presence of one or more decayed, missing, or filled primary teeth in children aged 71 months (6 years) or younger [84]. ECC has become a significant health problem with high prevalence. Khubchandani et al. [85,86] found preparations containing AgNPs can prevent ECC and rampant caries due to their anti-caries activity against S. mutans and their abilities to invade and destroy biofilm matrix. The impact of synthesized AgNPs on S. mutans was tested by pore diffusion and microdilution techniques. Al-Ansari et al. [87] found the potent antibiotic action over S. mutans seen with the synthesized AgNPs. Yin et al. [88] reported that AgNPs could prevent dental caries by inhibiting the adhesion and growth of cariogenic bacteria and hindering the demineralization of enamel and dentin.
One study found that adding different concentrations of AgNPs to the bonding system could exert their antibacterial effect without increasing cytotoxicity [89]. Besides, the bonding strength of the tooth-bonding interface was reliable and could improve the service life of the restoration [89]. Even with low concentrations of AgNPs incorporated into the composite resin, they could exhibit significant antibacterial properties without affecting inherent mechanical and biological properties [90]. In the realm of endodontic materials, the efficacy of AgNPs-based irrigants in eliminating S. aureus and E. faecalis is comparable to that of 5.25% NaClO. Furthermore, these irrigants exhibit an enhanced antibacterial effect when employed in root canal therapy [91].
4.1.2 Periodontal and peri-implantitis
Plaque control is the core of periodontal treatment. The effect of plaque control is crucial in periodontitis and peri-implantitis treatment. Antibiotics are required for patients with severe inflammation and periodontal surgery or implant surgery. However, antibiotics easily induce antibiotic resistance and reduce anti-microbial efficiency in plaque biofilms [92–94]. Nowadays, AgNPs have shown proposed application in the treatment of periodontitis and peri-implantitis or infection prevention due to their excellent antibacterial properties and resistance to induction [95]. Besides, Rani et al. [96] investigated the colonization and infiltration of specific bacteria (S. mutans, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, F. nucleatum, and Porphyromonas gingivalis) on AgNP-impregnated guided tissue regeneration membranes. They believed that the incorporation of AgNPs may be valuable and worth studying further. Habiboallah et al. [97] studied the effect of periodontal dressing with AgNPs on postoperative periodontal wounds and observed that the AgNPs group had less cell infiltration, more collagen synthesis, and cardiovascular formation.
Zhou et al. [98] studied the combination of antimicrobial peptides with osteogenic fragments with AgNPs and successfully achieved synergistically anti-bacterial and osseointegration. The potential mechanism was the destruction of bacterial cell membranes and the production of ROS. Bone formation was due to the compound which was beneficial to the adhesion, diffusion, and proliferation of bone marrow stem cells on the surface, and promoted the expression of osteogenic genes and the secretion of collagen [98]. Titanium implants containing AgNPs can produce good bacterial protection, which is conducive to solving the problem of peri-implant inflammation. Gelatamp, a commercially available absorbable gelatin sponge imbued with colloidal silver, is extensively utilized in the dental field for procedures such as tooth extraction, oral and maxillofacial surgery, and periodontal surgery. It offers rapid hemostasis, reduces postoperative complications, and aids in wound healing [99].
4.1.3 Orthodontics
For patients undergoing orthodontic treatment, brackets on the surface of the teeth make it difficult to clean, resulting in the accumulation of plaque biofilms and the risk of tooth demineralization and mucosal diseases like white spot lesions [100]. Hernandez-Gomora et al. [101] found that AgNPs had plaque resistance and could improve the physical properties of orthodontic elastic plates, such as maximum strength, tension, and displacement. In addition, Yuan et al. [102] designed a new adhesive containing polycaprolactone–gelatin–AgNPs (PCL–Gelatin–AgNPs) composite fiber, which enhanced the antibacterial efficiency without affecting the bonding ability. In orthodontic treatment, the surface modification of the archwire by AgNPs can not only prevent the accumulation and development of plaque but also reduce the surface sharpness and friction between the archwire and the orthodontic bracket [103].
4.1.4 Oral cancer
The occurrence of cancer is a multi-factor, multi-step complex process, with abnormal cell differentiation and proliferation, growth out of control, invasion and metastasis, and other biological characteristics [65]. It has been reported that AgNPs had prominent anticancer activity in different types of cancers such as breast cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer, ovarian cancer, and lung cancer [104–108].
NPs have been successfully applied to anticancer drugs due to their high surface volume ratio and high binding activity, and are easily diffusing into cells. As a new anticancer drug, AgNPs can also be applied to oral cancer. Subramanyam et al. [109] analyzed caspase activity by cell cycle test, apoptosis test, and flow cytometry. The results showed that AgNPs had excellent anti-proliferation, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis-promoting effects on oral cancer cells. Another study also demonstrated the significant free radical scavenging activity and antibacterial activity of AgNPs and inferred that AgNPs had the potential to treat human oral cancer-derived diseases [110]. In addition, AgNPs are now widely used in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer due to their unique sterilization, therapeutic effect, and stability, as well as the improvement of nanotechnology and therapeutic agents [111,112]. Moreover, the combination of different anticancer drugs and metal particles have been proven to enhance the endoplasmic reticulum stress of cancer cells, which has become an innovative method to fight different cancers [113].
4.2 Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a disease of abnormal metabolism characterized by hyperglycemia, which is associated with a high risk of specific chronic complications. Studies have shown that AgNPs can inhibit carbohydrate-digesting and key enzymes associated with diabetes, thereby controlling blood sugar. Kanmani et al. [114] showed that AgNPs have antidiabetic properties, significantly inhibiting α-amylase (78.84%) and α-glucosidase (58.86%) at a 100 µg/ml concentration, highlighting AgNPs' potential for diabetes management. Furthermore, AgNPs have been proven to have intensive hypoglycemic activity which was significantly dose-dependent. With their increase in surface area and decrease in NP size, anti-diabetic activity is stronger [115]. Due to the high blood glucose level, local hypoxia, impaired immunodeficiency, and other factors, diabetic wounds are difficult to heal. Dressings with AgNPs can accelerate wound healing and reduce scar formation. This is not only related to the antibacterial properties of AgNPs but also related to its anti-inflammatory and high surface volume ratio to enhance the penetration of the wound site [116]. Kong et al. [117] prepared a new type of AgNPs composite hydrogel. Polymer materials with the new dressing could improve the microenvironment, promote wound healing, and relieve pain. Khalil et al. [118] believed that the biosynthesis of AgNPs had stronger free radical scavenging activity in wound healing, due to the dual mode of action provided by the metal covered by plant components.
4.3 Neurodegenerative diseases
The pathogenesis of most neurological diseases is associated with up-regulation of amyloid-beta aggregation. Dehvari and Ghahghaei [119] found that biosynthesized AgNPs had a significant inhibitory effect on amyloid fiber accumulation. In addition, research has found that AgNPs can be used to combat neurological diseases caused by protein misfolding, such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [120]. Owing to their optimal size, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant properties, and sustained drug delivery capabilities, AgNPs can effectively transport therapeutic drugs across the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB), thereby offering a promising approach for treating neurological disorders [121–123].
AgNPs can also be used for biosensor construction of nervous system-related diseases. In recent years, based on the great progress of nanoscience, biosensors for detecting the main biomarkers of AD have been significantly developed [124]. Microglia are resident immune cells in the brain, which are associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Experiments have shown that citrate-coated AgNPs formed inactive silver sulfide (Ag2S) and released Ag+, eventually reducing inflammation and neurotoxicity of microglial [125]. However, some studies have shown that AgNPs may change the morphology of astrocytes, and increase neuronal inflammation and degeneration [126,127]. Recent studies have found that AgNPs induced oxidative stress in a coating-dependent manner and disrupted the antioxidant system in the hippocampus, which may be a potential cause of neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment [128].
4.4 Cancer
Thapa et al. [129] developed AgNPs embedded graphene oxide with coupled MTX(MTX-GO/AgNPs) and found that this combined system can be used for folate receptor targeted cancer therapy. Other studies have shown that AgNPs can also be used to treat drug-resistant forms of cancer, such as prostate cancer (PCa) that is resistant to hormone therapy or metastatic disease. Morais et al. [130,131] found that synthetic AgNPs can produce cytotoxicity through endocytosis for the treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer. Morais et al. [130] went further and found that AgNPs showed new potential in radiological anticancer treatment strategies. They treated clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) with AgNPs combined with Everolimus because it can sensitize cells to radiation while showing potential cytotoxicity in ccRCC tumor models. The role of nanomaterials in drug delivery in cancer treatment has been mentioned above in NDDS. In addition, Haque et al. [132] found that AgNPs can be used as a non-invasive imaging tool based on near-infrared to treat cancer. From this point of view, AgNPs show tremendous potential in exploiting new fields for cancer therapy. In cancer disease theranostics, Mukherjee et al. [133] found that the red fluorescence of biologically synthesized AgNPs could serve as an imaging enhancer for detecting the localization of drug molecules within cancer cells.
4.5 Wound coating/dressing
AgNPs have excellent antibacterial activity, anti-inflammatory effect, and drug carrier effect [134]. Combined with other composite materials, AgNPs are incorporated into gels to form new wound dressing systems and develop unique new bandages. It can promote wound healing, control the growth of multi-drug resistant bacteria, reduce inflammation, and enhance immunity [135]. Scientists have developed and commercialized AgNPs-based wound dressings that can cover large areas of burns and improve wound healing activity (ACTICOAT: Smith and Nephew, UK) [136]. Popescu et al. [137] demonstrated that composite hydrogels embedded with AgNPs and ibuprofen can play an antibacterial role in wound dressings, support healing and proliferation processes, and reshape the ultimately damaged tissue. In the context of cancer gene therapy, pegylated AgNPs are used as carriers of small interfering RNA that exhibit apoptosis in leukemic line cells [138].
4.6 Bone healing
AgNPs can promote the formation of fibrous joints, join the subsequent ends of the fracture, and upregulate the proteins of different bone morphogenesis [139–141]. Abd-Elkawi et al. [142], using a rabbit osteogenic model, further studied that the addition of platelet-rich fibrin and AgNPs to calcium carbonate nanoparticles (CCNPS) could reduce their absorption rate and improve their osteogenic and osteoinductive properties by promoting new bone formation.
5 Toxicity of AgNPs
As AgNPs have become widely used, research on their effects on human health and the environment has increased. But its toxicological mechanism remains unclear. Some experimental results on NPs toxicity suggest that the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of AgNPs depend on their size, shape, concentration, exposure time, administration routes environmental factors as well as capping agents. Scherer et al. [143] found that the smaller the particle size of AgNPs, the greater the toxicity, which may result from the larger specific surface area assisting in penetrating the cell membrane. The toxicity of AgNPs is also related to the specific surface area due to the shape of the particle, and the physical damage to the cell is more caused by irregular particles.
5.1 Possible toxicity mechanisms
AgNPs have the ability to continuously release silver ions (Ag+) for a long time, and it has great potential in dermatology and wound care management. However, Ahlberg et al. [144] proved that the release of Ag+ during the preparation and storage of NPs was the main reason for inducing intracellular ROS and related cytotoxicity by comparing AgNPs in O2 and Ar. Another study evaluated the acute toxicity of metal/metal oxide NPs using a rat liver-derived cell line (BRL3A) in vitro. The results showed that when AgNPs decreased mitochondrial function, their cytotoxicity to hepatocytes may be mediated by oxidative stress [145]. Meanwhile, they studied the size and concentration-dependent cytotoxicity mechanism of AgNPs [56]. The results showed that AgNPs can cause cell damage by destroying the stability of the autophagy-lysosomal system, resulting in activation of NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent caspase-1, endoplasmic reticulum stress, lactate dehydrogenase release, and apoptosis [146]. In addition, an in vitro study has shown that short-term and low-dose AgNPs exposure can induce vascular endothelial(VE)-cadherin phosphorylation, thereby disrupting vascular integrity and increasing endothelial cell permeability, which is associated with cardiovascular diseases (CVD) [147]. In terms of neurotoxicity, Pavičić et al. [148] proved in vitro tests that no matter what coating agent AgNPs is, it will cause oxidative damage to neurons, attenuate mitochondrial activity, and ultimately affect neurodevelopment and neurodegenerative toxicity.
5.2 Methods to reduce toxicity
Changing coating is a method to reduce the cytotoxicity of AgNPs. Coating material on the metal surface can enhance the advantages of NPs like improving stability and reducing agglomeration, but uncoated AgNPs significantly will reduce cell viability in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Coating can also play an oxidative protection role and reduce the release of silver ions. Moreover, the coating can even protect living cells from the cytotoxicity of AgNPs. The mechanism is by affecting the surface area, shape, and physical properties [149]. The material of the coating can be divided into organic and inorganic substances. With respect to organic substances, Travan et al. [150] promoted biosynthesis of AgNPs, polysaccharides-coated AgNPs possessed antimicrobial activity, but were non-toxic to eukaryotic cells. Another study has shown that natural clay as raw material to prepare silicate nanoplatelets loading with AgNPs provided good support for AgNPs, and reduced the inherent toxicity of AgNPs in clinical use [151].
Several studies have reported that selenium (Se) manages to resist AgNPs-induced toxicity by inhibiting oxidative damage and enhancing anti-inflammatory ability [152–155]. Ma et al. [156] recently found that Se had a protective effect on CVD caused by VE injury induced by AgNPs, which is attributed to inhibiting oxidative ROS and pro-inflammatory NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome by activating Nrf2 and antioxidant enzyme (HO-1) signaling pathways. Meanwhile, Hajtuch et al. [157] found that AgNPs coated with lipoic acid were more biosafe. In the oral field, studies by Niska et al. [158] showed that AgNPs with capping agents had less cytotoxicity and a wider range of antimicrobial activity against gingival fibroblasts.
6 Conclusion and perspectives
AgNPs have shown extraordinary functions in biomedicine due to their unique physicochemical properties and enhanced anti-bacterial activities. For example, AgNPs may provide new strategies for the treatment and prevention of dental infections, diabetes, and neurodegeneration. In addition, AgNPs have gradually been applied in other biochemistry, including environmental protection, monitoring, purification, medical treatment, and agricultural wastewater treatment through nanofiltration technology. In the coming decades, the application of AgNPs in nanomedicine, wound healing products, disinfectants, antibacterial nanocomposites, and antibacterial coatings is expected to have broad market prospects. However, although AgNPs have been maturely applied in various fields, the properties of AgNPs still need to be improved, and their toxicity remains unsolved.
In combination with this review, in order to enhance the capabilities and reduce the toxicity of AgNPs, the following strategies can be considered:
Changing the synthesis method: Using Green synthesis using biosynthesis: Using biosynthesis methods (such as using microbial or plant extracts) to produce AgNPs can result in safer and more environmentally friendly AgNPs. These biosynthesized AgNPs generally have better biocompatibility and lower toxicity.
Changing traits to control the size and shape of AgNPs: The study found that the size and shape of AgNPs have a significant impact on their toxicity. In general, the smaller the size and the more irregular the shape of AgNPs, the more toxic it is. Therefore, by optimizing the synthesis conditions and controlling the size and shape of AgNPs, its toxicity can be effectively reduced.
Surface modification: Surface modification of AgNPs can change their activity and reduce toxicity.
Using drug-carrying AgNPs: AgNPs can be used as drug carriers to enhance their antibacterial or anticancer activity by combining with other drugs.
Combining with other methods: AgNPs can be combined with PDT, PTT, and radiology to promote the development of treatment and diagnostics.
In addition, to ensure the safe application of AgNPs, it is also necessary to conduct low-dose use of AgNPs and conduct more in-depth biocompatibility and toxicity studies, so as to reduce the toxic effects on non-target sites.
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Funding information: This research was funded by the Science and Technology Planning Project of Sichuan Province (No. 22ZDYF2835).
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Author contributions: Writing – original draft preparation: Yanjie Ren; writing – review and editing: Yun Zhang; visualization: Yanjie Ren; corresponding author Xiaobing Li was responsible for the revision of this article and communication with the editors. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
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Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
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- Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
- Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
- One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
- A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
- Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
- Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
- Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
- Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
- Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
- Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
- Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
- Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
- Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
- Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
- Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
- Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
- Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
- Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
- Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
- Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
- Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
- Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
- PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
- Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
- Review Articles
- Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
- Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
- Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
- A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
- Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
- Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
- A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
- Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
- Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
- Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
- Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
- Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
- Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
- Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
- A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
- A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
- Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
- Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
- Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
- Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
- Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
- Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
- A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
- Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
- Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
- Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
- Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
- Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
- Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
- Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
- Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
- Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
- Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
- In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
- Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
- Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
- Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
- Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
- Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
- Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
- Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
- Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
- Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
- Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
- Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
- Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
- Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
- Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
- Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
- Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
- Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
- Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
- Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
- Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
- Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
- Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
- An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
- Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
- Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
- Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
- Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
- Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
- Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
- Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
- Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
- Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
- In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
- Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
- Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
- Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
- Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
- Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
- Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
- Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
- Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
- Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
- Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
- Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
- Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
- Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
- Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
- Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
- Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
Articles in the same Issue
- Research Articles
- Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
- Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
- Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
- Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
- Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
- Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
- Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
- Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
- Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
- Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
- Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
- Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
- Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
- Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
- Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
- Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
- An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
- Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
- Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
- Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
- Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
- Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
- Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
- Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
- A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
- Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
- Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
- Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
- Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
- Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
- CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
- Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
- Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
- A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
- In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
- A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
- A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
- The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
- Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
- The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
- Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
- Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
- Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
- Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
- Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
- Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
- Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
- Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
- Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
- Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
- Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
- Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
- Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
- Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
- Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique
- Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
- Optimization method for low-velocity impact identification in nanocomposite using genetic algorithm
- Analyzing the 3D-MHD flow of a sodium alginate-based nanofluid flow containing alumina nanoparticles over a bi-directional extending sheet using variable porous medium and slip conditions
- A comprehensive study of laser irradiated hydrothermally synthesized 2D layered heterostructure V2O5(1−x)MoS2(x) (X = 1–5%) nanocomposites for photocatalytic application
- Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
- A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
- Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
- Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
- Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
- A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
- Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
- Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
- Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
- Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
- Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
- Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
- One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
- A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
- Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
- Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
- Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
- Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
- Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
- Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
- Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
- Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
- Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
- Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
- Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
- Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
- Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
- Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
- Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
- Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
- Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
- Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
- PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
- Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
- Review Articles
- Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
- Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
- Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
- A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
- Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
- Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
- A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
- Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
- Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
- Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
- Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
- Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
- Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
- Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
- A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
- A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
- Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
- Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
- Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
- Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
- Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
- Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
- A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
- Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
- Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
- Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
- Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
- Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
- Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
- Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
- Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
- Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
- Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
- In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
- Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
- Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
- Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
- Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
- Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
- Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
- Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
- Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
- Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
- Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
- Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
- Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
- Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
- Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
- Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
- Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
- Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
- Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
- Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
- Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
- Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
- Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
- An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
- Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
- Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
- Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
- Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
- Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
- Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
- Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
- Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
- Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
- In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
- Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
- Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
- Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
- Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
- Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
- Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
- Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
- Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
- Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
- Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
- Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
- Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
- Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
- Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
- Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
- Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
