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Research progress on key problems of nanomaterials-modified geopolymer concrete

  • Zhong Xu EMAIL logo , Zhenpu Huang , Changjiang Liu EMAIL logo , Hui Deng EMAIL logo , Xiaowei Deng , David Hui EMAIL logo , Xiaoli Zhang and Zhijie Bai
Published/Copyright: August 5, 2021
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 10 Issue 1

Abstract

The raw materials of geopolymer come from industrial wastes, which have the advantages of lower carbon emissions and less energy consumption compared with traditional cement products. However, it still has the disadvantages of low strength, easy cracking, and low production efficiency, which limit its engineering application and development. At present, with the application and development of nanotechnology in the field of materials, it is found that nanomaterials have a good filling effect on composites, which greatly improves the integrity of the composites. It has become a very popular research direction to optimize and improve the engineering application performance of geopolymer concrete (GPC) by nanomaterials. The modification of nanomaterials can further improve the properties of GPC and expand its application fields in engineering and life. Based on people’s strong interest in nanomaterial-modified GPC and providing the latest and complete research status for further related work, this paper summarized the key technical problems in the field of nanomaterials-modified GPC in the past decade. Those include the modification mechanism, dispersion mode, and mechanical properties of nanomaterials. At the same time, the application bottlenecks and key problems of nanomaterials-modified GPC are comprehensively analyzed. Finally, the prospects and challenges of future work in this field are discussed.

Keywords: nanomaterials; geopolymers; modification mechanism; mechanical properties

1 Introduction

Nanomaterials-modified geopolymer concrete (GPC) has become a research hotspot in recent years because of its good application performance and various modification mechanisms [1]. Researches show that nanomaterials have a significant impact on the fluidity, mechanical properties, and microstructure of concrete. At the same time, some scholars pointed out that some modification effects are not necessarily positive. At this stage, many key problems in the field of nanomaterials-modified GPC have not been completely solved, and the research results of key technologies are still full of controversy [2,3].

Since cement was invented in 1824, the use of it has continued to increase. With the growth of population, statistics show that the annual global cement production will increase to 6.1 billion tons by 2050. China and other developing countries account for a high proportion, and China accounts for about half of the global cement production in 2019 [4]. The production of ordinary Portland cement needs to consume a lot of nonrenewable resources, such as natural gas, oil, coal, and so on. At the same time, mass production of cement can also lead to ultrahigh CO2 emissions (7% of global carbon emissions) [5]. Based on the needs of environmental protection and sustainable development, it is urgent to find alternatives to traditional cement.

In 1978, J. Davidovits, a French material scientist, put forward the concept of geopolymer. Geopolymer is a kind of cementitious material with more environmental benefits than traditional cement materials. Due to lower carbon emissions and less energy consumption, geopolymer is an important alternative to replace traditional cement products [6]. Different from ordinary concrete produced by cement, GPC uses geopolymer as cementitious material, which can be produced from waste industrial products and cheap minerals, such as fly ash [7], slag [8], high territory [9], and waste glass powder [10]. The production and preparation of GPC requires alkali activator to carry out polymerization and forms a stable aluminosilicate network structure, which has excellent mechanical properties and engineering application properties [11]. Alkali activators can come from chemical reagents or industrial wastes, such as red mud and cement kiln ash [12], which are materials with environmental benefits.

GPC has many advantages, and its reaction mechanism has been studied more thoroughly at present, but it still has some bottleneck problems, such as high porosity, low interfacial bond strength, and slow strength growth in the later stage, which limit its wide application in practical engineering [13]. In recent years, with the latest progress of nanomaterials’ research, the use of nanotechnology to solve the bottleneck problem of GPC has become a hot spot and has formed some technological exploration, but it is still one-sided and controversial, which is worthy of further thinking innovation and technology research and development.

Nanomaterial is a new type of material developed in the early 1980s. Nanomaterials refer to ultrafine materials with nanometer size (1–100 nm), including various powder materials, such as metal, nonmetal, organic, inorganic, and biological nanomaterials [14], which have obvious application value in engineering. Nanomaterials can play an obvious filling role in concrete because their particle size is less than 10 nm, the proportion of surface atoms reaches 20%, and the number of atoms distributed on the particle surface increases sharply with the decrease of particle size, as shown in Figure 1 [15]. Due to the size characteristics of nanomaterials, it can well fill the gaps in GPC, play the role of filling and bridging, accelerate the formation of aluminosilicate network and hydration process, and improve the mechanical properties of GPC [16]. The application of nanomaterials in GPC is still in its infancy, and there are still many controversies on the mechanism, dispersion mode, and comprehensive performance evaluation of nanomaterials-modified GPC.

Figure 1 Relationship between particle size and specific surface area of concrete [15].
Figure 1

Relationship between particle size and specific surface area of concrete [15].

There are many kinds of selection and dispersion methods, but it is difficult to achieve the convenience of operation and uniformity of dispersion at the same time, which forms a big obstacle for the research and engineering application of nanomaterials’ modification effect. At the same time, the factors affecting the mechanical properties of GPC are the focus of the research, and the solution of these problems undoubtedly needs to be supported by a lot of exploration. However, through literature review and carding in this field, it is found that the research on nanomaterials-modified GPC lacks systematism; no effective summary and evaluation of previous work has been made by scholars. As a result, it makes many scholars’ understanding not comprehensive enough, suffers from lack of navigation aids, and restricts further development.

In order to ensure scholars have a more comprehensive understanding of the working basis, research status, and application prospect of nanomaterials-modified GPC, the author wrote this paper to explore the influence of nanomaterials on the properties of GPC and analyze the corresponding mechanisms and key problems. The types of material selections, the research progress of the properties, and dispersion of nanomaterials in the field of GPC modified by nanomaterials in recent ten years were reviewed, the mechanical properties of GPC modified by nanomaterials were comprehensively analyzed, and the application prospects and possible challenges of nanomaterials in GPC were prospected.

2 Types and properties of the selected nanomaterials

Studying the properties of nanomaterials can help scholars to analyze the modification mechanism of nanomaterials. The research on the properties of nanomaterials should start with the selection of materials; a brief introduction will be given below. At the same time, the types and physical and chemical properties of nanomaterials will be introduced in detail, to help readers quickly establish the system framework of modified nanomaterials.

2.1 Nanomaterials selection used in modified concrete

The research shows that the workability, mechanical properties, durability, and microstructure of concrete can be effectively improved by adding nanomaterials [17]. At present, materials such as nano-SiO2 (NS), nano-CaCO3 (NC), nano-Al2O3 (NA), nano-Fe3O4, nano-TiO2 (NT), nano-ZnO2, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nano-metakaolin, and graphene oxide (GO) are often used as admixtures [18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25], to improve the engineering properties of concrete. The first step to prepare Nanomaterial-Modified GPC is to select suitable nanomaterial as additive. There are various nanomaterials on the market with different characteristics and functions. As shown in Figure 2 [26], it can be seen that NS is the most commonly used nanomaterial to modify GPC at present, which has a significant impact on the fluidity, mechanical properties, and microstructure of concrete. Other nanomaterials have many advantages, but the main limiting factors of other nanomaterials are high price, not easy to disperse, and so on [25].

Figure 2 Research on the use of various nanomaterials in geopolymers [26].
Figure 2

Research on the use of various nanomaterials in geopolymers [26].

2.2 Physical properties of nanomaterials

According to their morphology, nanomaterials can be divided into three types, nanoparticles (such as NS, NA, and NT), nanotubes/fibers (with one-dimensional linear characteristics, such as CNTs), and nanoflakes (with two-dimensional flake characteristics, such as GO nanoparticles). Table 1 lists the main characteristics of the representative products of these three types of nanomaterials.

Table 1

Main properties of nanomaterials

Types Nanomaterials Main features References
Nanoparticles NS 1. It is globular and mainly amorphous with high volcanic ash activity [21]
2. The diameter is usually 2–100 nm and the specific surface area is about 10–200 m2/g
NA 1. It is mainly globular or sub-globular and is characterized by volcanic ash activation [7,13,27]
2. The diameter is usually less than 100 nm and the specific surface area is about 10–100 m2/g
NT 1. NT particles have several structures, including rutile, anatase, hydrotalcite, TiO2 (B), TiO2 (H), TiO2 (R), and cubic phase. Mainly high crystalline phase, no volcanic ash reactivity [28,29]
2. The diameter is generally 1–200 nm and the specific surface is 10–150 m2/g
Nanofibers CNTs 1. The diameter of nanotubes is 0.4–2 nm and the specific surface area is 20–1,315 m2/g [30,31]
2. Tensile strength is usually between 50–200 GPa, modulus of elasticity is higher than 1,000 GPa, and conductivity is higher than 1,000 S/cm
Nanoflakes GO 1. The main functional groups fixed on GO surface are –OH and –COOH, which can be detected by FTIR method [32]
2. The tensile strength of GO is above 112 GPa, the modulus of elasticity is above 300 GPa, and the resistance is high

Nanomaterials have high specific surface area, which enables them to act as the main components of concrete modification, produce additional hydration products and dense interfacial transition zone (ITZ) in concrete, and form more favorable microstructure to promote engineering performance. The research results of Sato and Diallo [33] show that due to the presence of NC in the geopolymer matrix, the rapid formation of calcium silicate hydrate gel (C–S–H) on the surface of tricalcium silicate is observed. The formation of additional hydration products and the filling effect of nanomaterials improve the performance of ITZ and the permeability resistance of concrete.

On the other hand, the high aspect ratio of CNTs and other nanomaterials makes it suitable for improving mechanical properties of concrete. CNTs enhance the connection ability of various parts of concrete material on the nano scale and produce obvious bridging effect, thus improving the mechanical properties of material and reducing the generation of cracks.

2.3 Chemical properties of nanomaterials

Nanomaterials increase the rate of aluminate formation by accelerating the hydration reaction of tricalcium aluminate, which is confirmed in the studies of Sato and Diallo [33]. They found that adding nanomaterials shortened the curing cycle of concrete and increased the heat of hydration. On the other hand, nanomaterials can also react with tricalcium silicate to shorten the setting time of concrete and improve its early strength [34]. However, for materials like NS, the improvement of mechanical properties of concrete is more due to the increase of silica content than to the chemical reaction between NS and concrete base [35].

It’s worth noting that the effect of concrete composites modified by nanomaterials will also be affected by the dispersion degree of nanoparticles in the composite matrix. The improper dispersion of nanomaterials will lead to the agglomeration of nanomaterials, resulting in the formation of weak areas in the matrix and the corresponding reduction of mechanical properties, which means that the doping number of nanomaterials needs to be appropriate.

It is not difficult to find out from the above discussion that how to effectively utilize these nanomaterials and fully utilize their special potential in GPC is a matter of concern. For this reason, academia and industry should devote themselves to solving the problem of complete dispersion of nanomaterials in GPC, and at the same time, improve the basic understanding of the mechanism of properties modification of GPC modified by nanomaterials.

3 Dispersion technology and characterization method of nanomaterials

Nanomaterials have large specific surface area and surface activity. Due to the existence of Van der Waals force (VDW), nanomaterials tend to agglomerate in the natural state, resulting in uneven distribution and reducing the application performance of GPC. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the influence of dispersion methods and characterization methods of nanomaterials on GPC.

3.1 Dispersion methods of nanomaterials

The dispersion of nanomaterials is a very important link in the research field of nanomaterial-modified GPC, which can directly affect the performance of GPC. Therefore, the selection of appropriate dispersion mode is a very basic and important step in the research of nanomaterial-modified GPC.

At present, the most popular dispersion method is ultrasonic dispersion. Ultrasonic vibration provides a strong shear force, which can effectively counteract VDW and make the aggregated nanomaterials disperse more effectively to prepare a uniform suspension [36]. However, some scholars believe this method has obvious disadvantages. Suzuki et al. [37] and others mentioned that this method is time-consuming, too complex, and expensive when using ultrasonic to disperse nanomaterial. In order to solve this problem, Saafi et al. [38] studied the combined application of ultrasound and polycarboxylate surfactants to prepare more thoroughly dispersed suspensions in a shorter time. Abbasi et al. [39] used a similar method to disperse the mixture of NMK. Xu et al. [40] used Darex super 20, a high-water reducing superplasticizer based on naphthalene sulfonate, combined with ultrasonic wave for 30 min to obtain effectively dispersed GO suspension, as shown in Figure 3 [41].

Figure 3 Ultrasound combined with Darex Super20 dispersion effect [41].
Figure 3

Ultrasound combined with Darex Super20 dispersion effect [41].

The dosage of superplasticizer and ultrasonic power should also be considered in the comprehensive dispersion method; there is a lack of systematic and unified understanding in this aspect. In the exploration of reducing the water dosage, Zhao et al. [42] suggested that the dispersion effect is best when the mass ratio of dispersant to nanomaterial is 10:1. Lu et al. [43] believe that when the mass of the dispersant is 15% of nanomaterials, it is most conducive to dispersion. In terms of ultrasonic power, it is generally believed that it will have a great impact on the dispersion state of GO. Too small power will lead to poor dispersion effect, and too much power will damage the structure of GO. Li et al. [44] pointed out that GO/PVA composites have better dispersion when the ultrasonic energy is 15 Wh/L. Liu et al. [45] found that GO/nano-silica composite had the best dispersion when the ultrasonic power was 100 W; the mechanical properties of GO/metakaolin are the best, when the ultrasonic time is 15 min and the power is 81–94 W. Considering the different composites studied, the parameters of ultrasonic equipment and the corresponding treatment methods are different. It is therefore impossible to generalize the rule of universality from their studies. Ultrasound power and time also need to be determined according to the object of study of each test, and on the premise of many experiments, to find the best dispersion scheme.

In addition, methods such as chemical additives, covalent functionalization, etc. can be used to disperse nanomaterials [46,47,48]. However, in fact, most of the above decentralization methods are too costly and some of them are cumbersome; they are difficult to be widely applied in practical engineering projects. There is no dispersion method with strong applicability at present; it can be inferred that future research on this field will continue to deepen and finally find a dispersion method with strong adaptability.

3.2 Methods for characterizing dispersion

In trial-preparation vessels, it is often possible to observe the dispersion of nanomaterials with the naked eye and check whether nanomaterials have precipitation and agglomeration, etc. However, there is no widely applicable and convenient method for evaluating the dispersion of nanomaterials in hardened GPC. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is the most commonly used method to directly study the dispersion of nanomaterials [49]. Due to the existence of active particles in the hydration process of cementitious materials, it is difficult to separate the hydration products of geopolymer from those of reacted nanomaterials, so this method is often disturbed by many factors. Some tests use the engineering properties of hardened GPC, such as mechanical strength, water absorption, and gas permeability, to indirectly evaluate the dispersion of nanomaterials, but so far there is no direct evidence and relevant details to confirm the reliability of this method [50].

As discussed above, characterizing the dispersion of nanomaterials in suspensions is much easier, and these methods are potential options to accurately predict the distribution of nanomaterials in hardened GPC. In the past research, there are many methods to characterize the dispersion of nanomaterials in suspension, and they have been fully studied, such as ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, laser particle size analysis, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, Attenuated Total Reflectance - Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), SEM, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and atomic force microscopy. The specific methods are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Characterization of dispersion of nanomaterials in suspensions

Method Criteria of judgment References
Laser particle size analysis The smaller the particle size, the better the dispersion [51]
ATR-FTIR spectroscopy The larger the particle spacing, the better the dispersion [52]
Zeta potential The higher the particle potential, the better the dispersion [37]
SEM The smaller the particle size, the better the dispersion [25]

The research on dispersion mode and characterization method mainly focuses on tentative exploration, but there is no relatively uniform understanding at present. Existing research and exploration have been accumulated in quantity; the author believes that with the deepening of the research, breakthroughs will be made.

4 Working properties of nanomaterials-modified GPC

It is not difficult to find from the above analysis that the micro-physical properties of nanomaterials obviously have a significant influence on the working performance of GPC. The condensation time of GPC is very short, which is not conducive to transportation and construction on site; the application of GPC in engineering is greatly limited and it is often used to prepare precast concrete [53].

Many scholars try to use different nanomaterials to study the change of concrete performance. Wu et al. [54] found that the workability of concrete was greatly improved after the addition of NC, and the slump increased slightly when the content of NC varied between 0 and 1.5%. The study found that the optimum content of NC was 1.5%. A study found that ref. [55] the water demand decreased with the increase of NC content, and when the NC content was 2, 5, and 8%, the water demand decreased by 0.4, 1.8, and 3.2%, respectively.

Several studies have found that NS has a negative effect on GPC slump. Hani et al. [56] added 0.75% NS to study the influence on the slump of three different water-cement ratios of concrete, which decreased by 15.2, 15.5, and 14.1%, respectively, compared with the standard group; thus it can be seen that NS reduced the slump and flow of concrete mixtures with different water-cement ratios, and these changes were more obvious with the increase of nanoparticle content. They believe this is related to the increase in the surface area of concrete after adding nanomaterials, which will require more mortar to wrap NS, resulting in a decrease in its fluidity. Similarly, Adesina [57] found that adding NS up to 1.5% could significantly reduce the slump at different water-binder ratios. As shown in Figure 4 [57], the decrease in the slump of concrete with NS can be attributed to the formation of a high water-retaining microstructure, which results in an increase in the viscosity of the mixture.

Figure 4 Relationship between NS content and slump [57].
Figure 4

Relationship between NS content and slump [57].

Adjusting the water-binder ratio can improve the performance of GPC, but it has little effect on mechanical properties and durability of hardened GPC. Sun et al. [58] studied the influence of CNTs on the workability of concrete through experiments. The research found that when concrete is not mixed with CNTs, the slump can reach 150 mm. With the increase of CNTs content, the slump of concrete mixtures gradually decreases, and the fluidity becomes poor. Adding water reducer (<1.0%) into concrete mixtures with different CNT contents can make the slump of the mixtures up to 150–160 mm, which meets the construction requirements. Although surface modification of nanomaterials and geopolymers with water reducers or high-efficiency water reducers can improve the working performance of fresh mixtures, the effectiveness of high-efficiency water reducers may be affected by strong alkali, which will undoubtedly increase the difficulty of GPC preparation [59], as alkali activators are required for the polymerization of GPC.

The influence of nano magnetite on the working performance of concrete is negligible [60]. This phenomenon is attributed to the highly hydrophobic and porous morphology of nano magnetite. Therefore, it is important to understand the physical properties of nanomaterials and their possible influence on their working properties before they are applied to concrete composites.

According to the existing literature, there are still few articles on the performance of nanomaterials-modified GPC. The selected test materials have a certain randomness, and there is a lack of unified understanding of the performance improvement efficiency. Systematic research on performance improvement is still worth extensive exploration. It is necessary to conduct necessary analysis and research from the aspects of material selection, test method, measuring index, statistical method, and so on.

5 Mechanical properties of nanomaterials-modified GPC

By adding various nanomaterials to modify the concrete matrix, concrete with good mechanical properties can be obtained, which is one of the most promising research fields of nanomaterials in concrete. More and more studies have shown that nanomaterials can be used to improve the mechanical properties of GPC. The mechanism of this improvement can be summarized as filling effect, bridging effect, and hydration regulation effect of nanomaterials, etc., which will be discussed in the following chapters.

5.1 Study on compressive strength

The compressive strength of concrete is one of the most basic and important mechanical properties. Alomayri [13] made GPC from low-calcium fly ash (FA) and studied it with NA. It was found that the compressive strength can be increased by 12% when the optimum NA content is 2% mass fraction, but the strength will decrease when the content of NA exceeds this amount. Due to the increase of the concentration of NA, the amount of aluminum available for reaction also increases, the reaction speed increases, and active aluminum promotes gel formation. Due to the influence of dispersion mode, excessive NA will increase the porosity of GPC and decrease the strength, when the concentration of NA exceeds the optimum concentration. On this basis, Phoo-ngernkham et al. [7] added the same 2 wt% NS and NA composite nanomaterials, and the strength of GPC is further increased by 26%. Singh et al. [61] used 5% of NS; after 24 h of curing, the compressive strength increased by more than 60%. Deb et al. [62] also blended NS with a mass fraction of 2% and increased the 28-day compressive strength of GPC by 129%.

The modification mechanism of NS is different from that of NA. NS improves the compressive strength not only because of the additional hydration reaction of nanomaterials, but also because NS promotes further volcanic ash reaction. The modification effect of NS is naturally better than that of NA [63].

Similarly, the improvement of compressive strength of concrete by NT is only related to its pore filling effect. Compared with NS, NT has no pozzolanic reaction. The research shows that the optimum content of NT is 3% [64]. When the optimum content is exceeded, NT may aggregate and form a weak area in GPC [65]. At the same time, Duan et al. [66] demonstrated that after NT addition, the micro-cracks and micropores were refined due to bridging and nano-filling effects of NT. They also described the microstructure differences of NT at different ages in a simulation model, as shown in Figure 5 [26].

Figure 5 Simulated microstructure of NT-modified GPC at different maintenance ages [26].
Figure 5

Simulated microstructure of NT-modified GPC at different maintenance ages [26].

Some scholars have studied the influence of nanomaterial modification on the properties of fiber GPC and analyzed the data through experiments. Amin and Abu el-Hassan [67] have studied the influence of NS content from 0 to 1.8% and different content of basalt fibers on compressive and tensile strength. The research shows that with the increase of NS content, hydration reaction will produce a large amount of C–S–H gel and alumina, iron oxide, and trisulfide crystals. When the content is 1.2%, the content of C–S–H gel is the highest, which makes the concrete more compact. These inferences are also demonstrated from the compressive strength observed in the tests. However, Li et al. [22] did similar studies and found that 2% is the best amount to improve concrete performance.

In order to summarize and consider the influence laws of various materials on GPC, it is necessary to find a model to describe the modification effect. Considering the large amount of data distribution of various studies, it is difficult to integrate these intensity enhancement mechanisms with a common formula. Instead, using a box plot makes it easier to see and summarize the strength enhancement levels of different nanomaterials, as shown in Figure 6 [26]. The majority of nanoscale enhancements occur in the 28-day compressive strength of GPC, ranging from 7 to 49%, with median and average values of about 22 and 34%, respectively. These data provide a good predictor of strength improvement. The research shows that the dispersion level of nanomaterials has a great influence on the engineering properties of GPC. Therefore, good dispersion and high-quality nanomaterials can make the modification effect of GPC reach the ideal data shown in the diagram, that is, the strength enhancement effect is higher than 60%.

Figure 6 Distribution of GPC strength enhancement levels by different nanomaterials [26].
Figure 6

Distribution of GPC strength enhancement levels by different nanomaterials [26].

From the above analysis, it is not difficult to find that the effect of modification of GPC compressive strength by nanomaterials is directly affected by material type, dispersion mode, reaction mechanism, etc. Existing research has accumulated valuable exploration results, but there are still uncertainties in many issues, and there is still a great potential research value in this aspect.

5.2 Study on tensile strength

It is well-known that concrete has a low tensile strength of only 1/10–1/20 of its compressive strength. For the tensile strength of GPC, due to the different physical and chemical properties of different nanomaterials, there is often a significant difference in the modification effect.

Du et al. [68] and others used FA to prepare high-performance GPC with GO. Unlike the traditional method of directly incorporating nanomaterials into GPC, they have explored a more targeted method; nanomaterials are used to improve the interface between coarse aggregate and mortar. The key point is to coat the coarse aggregate with a layer of cementitious material mortar containing GO, as shown in Figure 7 [68]. Research shows that the tensile strength of GPC made by this method can be increased by 20%. Mokhtar et al. [69] directly filled GO into GPC; the tensile strength only increased by 9.2%. Through the comparison of the strength improvement of the two, it can be seen that the new method of modification and application of nanomaterials has great use value.

Figure 7 Aggregate diagram [68].
Figure 7

Aggregate diagram [68].

Some scholars used 8% nano-clay instead of slag, and the tensile strength increased by about 50% [70]. This increased tensile strength can be attributed to the filling ability and high volcanic ash activity of nano-clay, which also acts as an activator in the pores, thus increasing and accelerating the formation of hydration products. On the other hand, Chiranjeevi et al. [71] modified rice hull ash GPC with NT; the tensile strength only increased by about 9%, because NT only had bridging and nano-filling effects and did not have volcanic ash activity; the reaction mechanism was similar to that of modified compressive strength.

From the above discussion, because NS has high pozzolanic activity, it is helpful to improve the strength of concrete. However, Seifan et al. [72] found that the content of geopolymer also had a great influence on the strength of GPC modified by nanomaterials, and excessive addition would have a negative impact. They prepared GPC specimens with NS-modified FA. With the increase of fly ash content, the splitting tensile strength decreased. At low FA content (10%), the splitting strength of the specimens was 22% lower than that of the best specimens (only a small amount of fly ash), but not significantly lower than that of the control specimens (without nanoparticles). The splitting tensile strength of the sample decreases by 0.19 MPa when the fly ash content increases from 10 to 20%. This value is lower than the strength decreases of 0.529 MPa from 20 to 30% FA. The splitting tensile strength decreases the most, when the maximum FA content is 30%, as shown in Figure 8 [72].

Figure 8 Tensile strength [72].
Figure 8

Tensile strength [72].

At this stage, due to its low price and the combination of chemical function, nucleation function, and filling function, NC has attracted more and more attention [73]. According to literature, it is found that when the content of NC exceeds the optimum content, it is not advantageous to improve the properties of the material. The main reason is that the VDW of NC is larger than that of cementitious materials, and NC with fine particles is easily produced in the mixture. The optimum content of NC is 2.2% when FA content is 29.0%. The tensile strength of GPC was 27.3% higher than that of the control group with this addition [74]. But the strength decreases when this optimum content is exceeded.

At present, it is generally believed that nanomaterial modification can obviously improve the tensile properties of polymer concrete, and some experimental results have been accumulated. Considering the influence of multiple factors such as cost, method, principle, technology, and so on, the current work is still in its infancy, and a large number of scholars are conducting extensive exploration from the aspects of material selection, microscopic mechanism, application conditions, and so on and will make further progress in the future.

5.3 Study on flexural strength

Just like the tensile strength, the flexural strength of concrete is relatively low. However, unlike the compressive strength, the main reason for the improvement of the flexural strength of GPC modified by nanomaterials is the bridging effect of nanomaterials [75].

Zhang et al. [76] considered the serious concrete disease of tunnel structure, took FA as basic material, and combined pre-suspended NS with superfine admixture to improve the flexural strength of GPC. The test found that when the NS content is 5%, this method can steadily increase the flexural strength of GPC by more than 17%, and more importantly, it can improve the crack resistance of GPC very well. Zhang et al. [77] used fly ash and metakaolin to make reinforcing bar GPC, modified with NS, and added PVA fiber to enhance flexural strength of GPC. It was found that the bonding properties of GPC were optimized when the PVA fiber content was between 0.6 and 0.8% and NS content was between 1.5 and 2%. And the relationship between steel slip and stress is obtained, as shown in Figure 9 [77].

Figure 9 Relationship between slip and stress of reinforcement [77].
Figure 9

Relationship between slip and stress of reinforcement [77].

Nanomaterials have a great influence on the improvement of GPC by the amount of doping, and there is often an optimum amount of doping. If this limit is exceeded, the strength will decrease instead. Studies by Lucas et al. [78] have shown that the high content of nanomaterials (i.e., more than 2.5%) in concrete leads to a decrease in flexural strength, which is observed to be about 30% when NA is used as a substitute for Geopolymer in the range of 2.5–5%. At the same time, Wang et al. [79] analyzed that the reason for the decrease in strength might be the short curing age. He added 0.75% NS and 3% nano-clay into the concrete. After 90 days of curing, the bending strength could be increased by 9%. No reduction in bending strength was found. Adding 3% nanoparticles (containing 25% NS and 75% nano-clay) had a great effect on improving mechanical properties.

Many scholars are very interested in the optimal mixing amount of nanomaterials. Studies by Morsy et al. [25] and Li et al. [80] have shown that aggregation of nanomaterials in cemented composites will lead to micropore and corresponding weak areas in the composites. Li et al. [80] also concluded that NS and NA could only increase the flexural strength of concrete at a maximum dosage of 1%, and that it was observed that the flexural strength would decrease at higher nano-content. Konsta et al. [81] also showed that the flexural strength of high-strength concrete can be improved by adding 4.8% NC, while the flexural strength of common GPC can be improved by adding low NS content (i.e., 0.5%). Changes in the optimum quantities of different types of nanomaterials indicate that the optimum quantities of these types of nanomaterials should be evaluated preliminarily before they can be used on a large scale.

The flexural strength is greatly affected by the crack of concrete, and the inhibition of crack is the research focus of nanometer-modified materials to improve the performance of concrete. The internal structure will be rapidly polluted by water and pollutants, when cracks occur on the surface of concrete. Some studies have shown that porous and honeycomb structures of alkali-activated blast furnace slag particles can be used as ideal carriers for photocatalytic removal of atmospheric and water pollutants [82]. Based on this, Zhu et al. [83] and others added NT through impregnation method to join photocatalytic-activated slag particles. The physicochemical properties and NO removal properties of activated slag particles/NT photocatalyst were studied by X-ray diffraction, SEM, and photocatalytic performance test. Research shows that the GPC has 31% more ability to absorb pollutants and 40% higher flexural strength when NT is added.

Nanomaterial-modified geopolymer self-compacting concrete also has high engineering application value [84,85]. Langaroudi and Mohammadi [86] found that the flexural strength of geopolymer self-compacting concrete was significantly improved when the NC content was 3% compared with 1 and 2% NC, and 3% is the optimum NC content for geopolymer self-compacting concrete. Hamed et al. [87] studied the influence of different NC contents (5, 7.5, and 10%) on the performance of concrete and found that the performance of concrete treated with NC particles by ultrasonic treatment was significantly improved compared with that of NC concrete directly added, and that the optimum content of NC substitute geopolymer was 7.5%.

In addition to the above discussion studies, other studies are listed in Table 3 [88,89,90]. In a word, the influence factors of nanomaterials on the mechanical properties of GPC are complex, involving material properties, curing age, material combination, and so on [91,92,93]. Therefore, a lot of research is needed to support breakthrough progress.

Table 3

Optimum doping amount of nanomaterials (%)

Nanomaterials Compressive strength content Tensile strength content Flexural strength content References
NS 4.8 4.8 3.0 [88]
NS 1 0.5 0.5 [21]
NS 2 2 2 [1]
NC 2 — 1 [1]
NA 3 — — [89]
NMK 9 — — [90]
NS 2.5 2.5 3 [88]

6 Summary and prospect

Nanomaterials have a good effect on improving the performance of GPC and expand the engineering application field of GPC. Modification of GPC with nanomaterials is still in the primary stage, and some valuable research results have been achieved. At the same time, it proves that there is great research value potential in this field. In order to further improve the application value of nanomaterial-modified GPC and make the research in this field more mature, some key bottlenecks need to be solved and some key technologies need to be explored. The main conclusions and prospects of this paper are summarized as follows:

  1. Due to its excellent physical and chemical mechanism, nanomaterials can improve the properties of GPC, which is a hot research topic in recent years. There are many kinds of nanomaterials; NS is the most common choice to modify Geopolymer Materials. Although the modification effect of NS is remarkable, the high cost of NS greatly limits the development of this field. Therefore, it is very important to optimize the production process of NS or develop other feasible nanomaterials.

  2. There is a lack of systematic research and unified understanding of the dispersion methods and characterization methods of nanomaterials. Different dispersion methods have a significant impact on the performance of concrete. There is a certain conflict between the convenience of operation mode and the uniformity of dispersion, and the two cannot be perfectly coordinated, which is worthy of further exploration. On the other hand, the way of characterizing the dispersion of nanomaterial in concrete is not uniform and clear enough. At present, it can only be inferred from the macroscopic physical and mechanical properties of concrete. These two aspects are the primary influencing factors of the performance of GPC modified by nanomaterials, and scholars need to increase research efforts in this aspect.

  3. Nanomaterials have a significant effect on the performance of GPC. Some studies have found that nanomaterials will significantly reduce the fluidity of GPC, which is detrimental to the pouring and transportation of GPC. Although superplasticizer can be added to improve the flow performance of concrete, it will increase the difficulty of preparing GPC. Therefore, efforts need to be made to develop more admixtures in material selection to improve the working performance of GPC.

  4. The mechanical properties of GPC modified by nanomaterial are significant, but the results are different with the kinds and contents of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials have no uniform effect on the compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, and other strength indexes of GPC; it often has different dosage and modification mechanisms for different strength indexes of concrete. For example, the improvement of compressive strength is mainly due to the hydration reaction, pozzolanic effect, and other chemical properties of nanomaterial, but the tensile and flexural strength index are due to its bridging effect at the micro level. Complex mechanism and many influencing factors hinder the development of this field. How to systematically study the modified mechanical properties of nanomaterials and establish a unified theory has become the focus of current exploration.

  5. Most of the researches on GPC modified by nanomaterial are in the initial stage of exploration, and few studies pay attention to the application value in this field, mainly because the price of nanomaterial and the research results in this field are not unified. Therefore, more basic research is needed to make up for the research gap in nanomaterial, dispersion effect, and performance, to promote the field of nanomaterial-modified GPC, and to develop its application value rapidly.

Acknowledgments

The writing of this paper has been supported by many projects, which can be seen in funding information. At the same time, the project team members and all authors have supported this paper. A note of thanks to them.

  1. Funding information: This study was supported by the Open Project of Chongqing groundwater Resources Utilization and Environmental Protection Laboratory (DXS20191029), Sichuan Science and Technology Program (2020JDR0266), Sichuan Mingyang Construction Engineering Management Co., Ltd. Specialized Project (MY2021-001).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: David Hui, who is the co-author of this article, is a current Editorial Board member of Nanotechnology Reviews. This fact did not affect the peer-review process. The authors declare no other conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-07-27
Revised: 2021-07-30
Accepted: 2021-08-01
Published Online: 2021-08-05

© 2021 Zhong Xu et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  13. Thermal conductivity and thermoelectric properties in 3D macroscopic pure carbon nanotube materials
  14. An effective thermal conductivity and thermomechanical homogenization scheme for a multiscale Nb3Sn filaments
  15. Friction stir spot welding of AA5052 with additional carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composite interlayer
  16. Improvement of long-term cycling performance of high-nickel cathode materials by ZnO coating
  17. Quantum effects of gas flow in nanochannels
  18. An approach to effectively improve the interfacial bonding of nano-perfused composites by in situ growth of CNTs
  19. Effects of nano-modified polymer cement-based materials on the bending behavior of repaired concrete beams
  20. Effects of the combined usage of nanomaterials and steel fibres on the workability, compressive strength, and microstructure of ultra-high performance concrete
  21. One-pot solvothermal synthesis and characterization of highly stable nickel nanoparticles
  22. Comparative study on mechanisms for improving mechanical properties and microstructure of cement paste modified by different types of nanomaterials
  23. Effect of in situ graphene-doped nano-CeO2 on microstructure and electrical contact properties of Cu30Cr10W contacts
  24. The experimental study of CFRP interlayer of dissimilar joint AA7075-T651/Ti-6Al-4V alloys by friction stir spot welding on mechanical and microstructural properties
  25. Vibration analysis of a sandwich cylindrical shell in hygrothermal environment
  26. Water barrier and mechanical properties of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch (TPS)/poly(lactic acid) (PLA) blend bionanocomposites
  27. Strong quadratic acousto-optic coupling in 1D multilayer phoxonic crystal cavity
  28. Three-dimensional shape analysis of peripapillary retinal pigment epithelium-basement membrane layer based on OCT radial images
  29. Solvent regulation synthesis of single-component white emission carbon quantum dots for white light-emitting diodes
  30. Xanthate-modified nanoTiO2 as a novel vulcanization accelerator enhancing mechanical and antibacterial properties of natural rubber
  31. Effect of steel fiber on impact resistance and durability of concrete containing nano-SiO2
  32. Ultrasound-enhanced biosynthesis of uniform ZnO nanorice using Swietenia macrophylla seed extract and its in vitro anticancer activity
  33. Temperature dependence of hardness prediction for high-temperature structural ceramics and their composites
  34. Study on the frequency of acoustic emission signal during crystal growth of salicylic acid
  35. Controllable modification of helical carbon nanotubes for high-performance microwave absorption
  36. Role of dry ozonization of basalt fibers on interfacial properties and fracture toughness of epoxy matrix composites
  37. Nanosystem’s density functional theory study of the chlorine adsorption on the Fe(100) surface
  38. A rapid nanobiosensing platform based on herceptin-conjugated graphene for ultrasensitive detection of circulating tumor cells in early breast cancer
  39. Improving flexural strength of UHPC with sustainably synthesized graphene oxide
  40. The role of graphene/graphene oxide in cement hydration
  41. Structural characterization of microcrystalline and nanocrystalline cellulose from Ananas comosus L. leaves: Cytocompatibility and molecular docking studies
  42. Evaluation of the nanostructure of calcium silicate hydrate based on atomic force microscopy-infrared spectroscopy experiments
  43. Combined effects of nano-silica and silica fume on the mechanical behavior of recycled aggregate concrete
  44. Safety study of malapposition of the bio-corrodible nitrided iron stent in vivo
  45. Triethanolamine interface modification of crystallized ZnO nanospheres enabling fast photocatalytic hazard-free treatment of Cr(vi) ions
  46. Novel electrodes for precise and accurate droplet dispensing and splitting in digital microfluidics
  47. Construction of Chi(Zn/BMP2)/HA composite coating on AZ31B magnesium alloy surface to improve the corrosion resistance and biocompatibility
  48. Experimental and multiscale numerical investigations on low-velocity impact responses of syntactic foam composites reinforced with modified MWCNTs
  49. Comprehensive performance analysis and optimal design of smart light pole for cooperative vehicle infrastructure system
  50. Room temperature growth of ZnO with highly active exposed facets for photocatalytic application
  51. Influences of poling temperature and elongation ratio on PVDF-HFP piezoelectric films
  52. Large strain hardening of magnesium containing in situ nanoparticles
  53. Super stable water-based magnetic fluid as a dual-mode contrast agent
  54. Photocatalytic activity of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles: In vitro antimicrobial, biocompatibility, and molecular docking studies
  55. Hygrothermal environment effect on the critical buckling load of FGP microbeams with initial curvature integrated by CNT-reinforced skins considering the influence of thickness stretching
  56. Thermal aging behavior characteristics of asphalt binder modified by nano-stabilizer based on DSR and AFM
  57. Building effective core/shell polymer nanoparticles for epoxy composite toughening based on Hansen solubility parameters
  58. Structural characterization and nanoscale strain field analysis of α/β interface layer of a near α titanium alloy
  59. Optimization of thermal and hydrophobic properties of GO-doped epoxy nanocomposite coatings
  60. The properties of nano-CaCO3/nano-ZnO/SBR composite-modified asphalt
  61. Three-dimensional metallic carbon allotropes with superhardness
  62. Physical stability and rheological behavior of Pickering emulsions stabilized by protein–polysaccharide hybrid nanoconjugates
  63. Optimization of volume fraction and microstructure evolution during thermal deformation of nano-SiCp/Al–7Si composites
  64. Phase analysis and corrosion behavior of brazing Cu/Al dissimilar metal joint with BAl88Si filler metal
  65. High-efficiency nano polishing of steel materials
  66. On the rheological properties of multi-walled carbon nano-polyvinylpyrrolidone/silicon-based shear thickening fluid
  67. Fabrication of Ag/ZnO hollow nanospheres and cubic TiO2/ZnO heterojunction photocatalysts for RhB degradation
  68. Fabrication and properties of PLA/nano-HA composite scaffolds with balanced mechanical properties and biological functions for bone tissue engineering application
  69. Investigation of the early-age performance and microstructure of nano-C–S–H blended cement-based materials
  70. Reduced graphene oxide coating on basalt fabric using electrophoretic deposition and its role in the mechanical and tribological performance of epoxy/basalt fiber composites
  71. Effect of nano-silica as cementitious materials-reducing admixtures on the workability, mechanical properties and durability of concrete
  72. Machine-learning-assisted microstructure–property linkages of carbon nanotube-reinforced aluminum matrix nanocomposites produced by laser powder bed fusion
  73. Physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of highly porous polylactic acid/cellulose nanofibre scaffolds prepared by salt leaching technique
  74. A comparative study on characterizations and synthesis of pure lead sulfide (PbS) and Ag-doped PbS for photovoltaic applications
  75. Clean preparation of washable antibacterial polyester fibers by high temperature and high pressure hydrothermal self-assembly
  76. Al 5251-based hybrid nanocomposite by FSP reinforced with graphene nanoplates and boron nitride nanoparticles: Microstructure, wear, and mechanical characterization
  77. Interlaminar fracture toughness properties of hybrid glass fiber-reinforced composite interlayered with carbon nanotube using electrospray deposition
  78. Microstructure and life prediction model of steel slag concrete under freezing-thawing environment
  79. Synthesis of biogenic silver nanoparticles from the seed coat waste of pistachio (Pistacia vera) and their effect on the growth of eggplant
  80. Study on adaptability of rheological index of nano-PUA-modified asphalt based on geometric parameters of parallel plate
  81. Preparation and adsorption properties of nano-graphene oxide/tourmaline composites
  82. A study on interfacial behaviors of epoxy/graphene oxide derived from pitch-based graphite fibers
  83. Multiresponsive carboxylated graphene oxide-grafted aptamer as a multifunctional nanocarrier for targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics and bioactive compounds in cancer therapy
  84. Piezoresistive/piezoelectric intrinsic sensing properties of carbon nanotube cement-based smart composite and its electromechanical sensing mechanisms: A review
  85. Smart stimuli-responsive biofunctionalized niosomal nanocarriers for programmed release of bioactive compounds into cancer cells in vitro and in vivo
  86. Photoremediation of methylene blue by biosynthesized ZnO/Fe3O4 nanocomposites using Callistemon viminalis leaves aqueous extract: A comparative study
  87. Study of gold nanoparticles’ preparation through ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation for possible use as markers in LFIA tests
  88. Review Articles
  89. Advance on the dispersion treatment of graphene oxide and the graphene oxide modified cement-based materials
  90. Development of ionic liquid-based electroactive polymer composites using nanotechnology
  91. Nanostructured multifunctional electrocatalysts for efficient energy conversion systems: Recent perspectives
  92. Recent advances on the fabrication methods of nanocomposite yarn-based strain sensor
  93. Review on nanocomposites based on aerospace applications
  94. Overview of nanocellulose as additives in paper processing and paper products
  95. The frontiers of functionalized graphene-based nanocomposites as chemical sensors
  96. Material advancement in tissue-engineered nerve conduit
  97. Carbon nanostructure-based superhydrophobic surfaces and coatings
  98. Functionalized graphene-based nanocomposites for smart optoelectronic applications
  99. Interfacial technology for enhancement in steel fiber reinforced cementitious composite from nano to macroscale
  100. Metal nanoparticles and biomaterials: The multipronged approach for potential diabetic wound therapy
  101. Review on resistive switching mechanisms of bio-organic thin film for non-volatile memory application
  102. Nanotechnology-enabled biomedical engineering: Current trends, future scopes, and perspectives
  103. Research progress on key problems of nanomaterials-modified geopolymer concrete
  104. Smart stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for the cancer therapy – nanomedicine
  105. An overview of methods for production and detection of silver nanoparticles, with emphasis on their fate and toxicological effects on human, soil, and aquatic environment
  106. Effects of chemical modification and nanotechnology on wood properties
  107. Mechanisms, influencing factors, and applications of electrohydrodynamic jet printing
  108. Application of antiviral materials in textiles: A review
  109. Phase transformation and strengthening mechanisms of nanostructured high-entropy alloys
  110. Research progress on individual effect of graphene oxide in cement-based materials and its synergistic effect with other nanomaterials
  111. Catalytic defense against fungal pathogens using nanozymes
  112. A mini-review of three-dimensional network topological structure nanocomposites: Preparation and mechanical properties
  113. Mechanical properties and structural health monitoring performance of carbon nanotube-modified FRP composites: A review
  114. Nano-scale delivery: A comprehensive review of nano-structured devices, preparative techniques, site-specificity designs, biomedical applications, commercial products, and references to safety, cellular uptake, and organ toxicity
  115. Effects of alloying, heat treatment and nanoreinforcement on mechanical properties and damping performances of Cu–Al-based alloys: A review
  116. Recent progress in the synthesis and applications of vertically aligned carbon nanotube materials
  117. Thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity of mono and hybrid organic- and synthetic-based nanofluids: A critical review
  118. Recent advances in waste-recycled nanomaterials for biomedical applications: Waste-to-wealth
  119. Layup sequence and interfacial bonding of additively manufactured polymeric composite: A brief review
  120. Quantum dots synthetization and future prospect applications
  121. Approved and marketed nanoparticles for disease targeting and applications in COVID-19
  122. Strategies for improving rechargeable lithium-ion batteries: From active materials to CO2 emissions
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2021-0056
Keywords for this article
nanomaterials; geopolymers; modification mechanism; mechanical properties
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  10. Microwave-assisted sol–gel synthesis of TiO2-mixed metal oxide nanocatalyst for degradation of organic pollutant
  11. Electrophoretic deposition of graphene on basalt fiber for composite applications
  12. Polyphenylene sulfide-coated wrench composites by nanopinning effect
  13. Thermal conductivity and thermoelectric properties in 3D macroscopic pure carbon nanotube materials
  14. An effective thermal conductivity and thermomechanical homogenization scheme for a multiscale Nb3Sn filaments
  15. Friction stir spot welding of AA5052 with additional carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composite interlayer
  16. Improvement of long-term cycling performance of high-nickel cathode materials by ZnO coating
  17. Quantum effects of gas flow in nanochannels
  18. An approach to effectively improve the interfacial bonding of nano-perfused composites by in situ growth of CNTs
  19. Effects of nano-modified polymer cement-based materials on the bending behavior of repaired concrete beams
  20. Effects of the combined usage of nanomaterials and steel fibres on the workability, compressive strength, and microstructure of ultra-high performance concrete
  21. One-pot solvothermal synthesis and characterization of highly stable nickel nanoparticles
  22. Comparative study on mechanisms for improving mechanical properties and microstructure of cement paste modified by different types of nanomaterials
  23. Effect of in situ graphene-doped nano-CeO2 on microstructure and electrical contact properties of Cu30Cr10W contacts
  24. The experimental study of CFRP interlayer of dissimilar joint AA7075-T651/Ti-6Al-4V alloys by friction stir spot welding on mechanical and microstructural properties
  25. Vibration analysis of a sandwich cylindrical shell in hygrothermal environment
  26. Water barrier and mechanical properties of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch (TPS)/poly(lactic acid) (PLA) blend bionanocomposites
  27. Strong quadratic acousto-optic coupling in 1D multilayer phoxonic crystal cavity
  28. Three-dimensional shape analysis of peripapillary retinal pigment epithelium-basement membrane layer based on OCT radial images
  29. Solvent regulation synthesis of single-component white emission carbon quantum dots for white light-emitting diodes
  30. Xanthate-modified nanoTiO2 as a novel vulcanization accelerator enhancing mechanical and antibacterial properties of natural rubber
  31. Effect of steel fiber on impact resistance and durability of concrete containing nano-SiO2
  32. Ultrasound-enhanced biosynthesis of uniform ZnO nanorice using Swietenia macrophylla seed extract and its in vitro anticancer activity
  33. Temperature dependence of hardness prediction for high-temperature structural ceramics and their composites
  34. Study on the frequency of acoustic emission signal during crystal growth of salicylic acid
  35. Controllable modification of helical carbon nanotubes for high-performance microwave absorption
  36. Role of dry ozonization of basalt fibers on interfacial properties and fracture toughness of epoxy matrix composites
  37. Nanosystem’s density functional theory study of the chlorine adsorption on the Fe(100) surface
  38. A rapid nanobiosensing platform based on herceptin-conjugated graphene for ultrasensitive detection of circulating tumor cells in early breast cancer
  39. Improving flexural strength of UHPC with sustainably synthesized graphene oxide
  40. The role of graphene/graphene oxide in cement hydration
  41. Structural characterization of microcrystalline and nanocrystalline cellulose from Ananas comosus L. leaves: Cytocompatibility and molecular docking studies
  42. Evaluation of the nanostructure of calcium silicate hydrate based on atomic force microscopy-infrared spectroscopy experiments
  43. Combined effects of nano-silica and silica fume on the mechanical behavior of recycled aggregate concrete
  44. Safety study of malapposition of the bio-corrodible nitrided iron stent in vivo
  45. Triethanolamine interface modification of crystallized ZnO nanospheres enabling fast photocatalytic hazard-free treatment of Cr(vi) ions
  46. Novel electrodes for precise and accurate droplet dispensing and splitting in digital microfluidics
  47. Construction of Chi(Zn/BMP2)/HA composite coating on AZ31B magnesium alloy surface to improve the corrosion resistance and biocompatibility
  48. Experimental and multiscale numerical investigations on low-velocity impact responses of syntactic foam composites reinforced with modified MWCNTs
  49. Comprehensive performance analysis and optimal design of smart light pole for cooperative vehicle infrastructure system
  50. Room temperature growth of ZnO with highly active exposed facets for photocatalytic application
  51. Influences of poling temperature and elongation ratio on PVDF-HFP piezoelectric films
  52. Large strain hardening of magnesium containing in situ nanoparticles
  53. Super stable water-based magnetic fluid as a dual-mode contrast agent
  54. Photocatalytic activity of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles: In vitro antimicrobial, biocompatibility, and molecular docking studies
  55. Hygrothermal environment effect on the critical buckling load of FGP microbeams with initial curvature integrated by CNT-reinforced skins considering the influence of thickness stretching
  56. Thermal aging behavior characteristics of asphalt binder modified by nano-stabilizer based on DSR and AFM
  57. Building effective core/shell polymer nanoparticles for epoxy composite toughening based on Hansen solubility parameters
  58. Structural characterization and nanoscale strain field analysis of α/β interface layer of a near α titanium alloy
  59. Optimization of thermal and hydrophobic properties of GO-doped epoxy nanocomposite coatings
  60. The properties of nano-CaCO3/nano-ZnO/SBR composite-modified asphalt
  61. Three-dimensional metallic carbon allotropes with superhardness
  62. Physical stability and rheological behavior of Pickering emulsions stabilized by protein–polysaccharide hybrid nanoconjugates
  63. Optimization of volume fraction and microstructure evolution during thermal deformation of nano-SiCp/Al–7Si composites
  64. Phase analysis and corrosion behavior of brazing Cu/Al dissimilar metal joint with BAl88Si filler metal
  65. High-efficiency nano polishing of steel materials
  66. On the rheological properties of multi-walled carbon nano-polyvinylpyrrolidone/silicon-based shear thickening fluid
  67. Fabrication of Ag/ZnO hollow nanospheres and cubic TiO2/ZnO heterojunction photocatalysts for RhB degradation
  68. Fabrication and properties of PLA/nano-HA composite scaffolds with balanced mechanical properties and biological functions for bone tissue engineering application
  69. Investigation of the early-age performance and microstructure of nano-C–S–H blended cement-based materials
  70. Reduced graphene oxide coating on basalt fabric using electrophoretic deposition and its role in the mechanical and tribological performance of epoxy/basalt fiber composites
  71. Effect of nano-silica as cementitious materials-reducing admixtures on the workability, mechanical properties and durability of concrete
  72. Machine-learning-assisted microstructure–property linkages of carbon nanotube-reinforced aluminum matrix nanocomposites produced by laser powder bed fusion
  73. Physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of highly porous polylactic acid/cellulose nanofibre scaffolds prepared by salt leaching technique
  74. A comparative study on characterizations and synthesis of pure lead sulfide (PbS) and Ag-doped PbS for photovoltaic applications
  75. Clean preparation of washable antibacterial polyester fibers by high temperature and high pressure hydrothermal self-assembly
  76. Al 5251-based hybrid nanocomposite by FSP reinforced with graphene nanoplates and boron nitride nanoparticles: Microstructure, wear, and mechanical characterization
  77. Interlaminar fracture toughness properties of hybrid glass fiber-reinforced composite interlayered with carbon nanotube using electrospray deposition
  78. Microstructure and life prediction model of steel slag concrete under freezing-thawing environment
  79. Synthesis of biogenic silver nanoparticles from the seed coat waste of pistachio (Pistacia vera) and their effect on the growth of eggplant
  80. Study on adaptability of rheological index of nano-PUA-modified asphalt based on geometric parameters of parallel plate
  81. Preparation and adsorption properties of nano-graphene oxide/tourmaline composites
  82. A study on interfacial behaviors of epoxy/graphene oxide derived from pitch-based graphite fibers
  83. Multiresponsive carboxylated graphene oxide-grafted aptamer as a multifunctional nanocarrier for targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics and bioactive compounds in cancer therapy
  84. Piezoresistive/piezoelectric intrinsic sensing properties of carbon nanotube cement-based smart composite and its electromechanical sensing mechanisms: A review
  85. Smart stimuli-responsive biofunctionalized niosomal nanocarriers for programmed release of bioactive compounds into cancer cells in vitro and in vivo
  86. Photoremediation of methylene blue by biosynthesized ZnO/Fe3O4 nanocomposites using Callistemon viminalis leaves aqueous extract: A comparative study
  87. Study of gold nanoparticles’ preparation through ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation for possible use as markers in LFIA tests
  88. Review Articles
  89. Advance on the dispersion treatment of graphene oxide and the graphene oxide modified cement-based materials
  90. Development of ionic liquid-based electroactive polymer composites using nanotechnology
  91. Nanostructured multifunctional electrocatalysts for efficient energy conversion systems: Recent perspectives
  92. Recent advances on the fabrication methods of nanocomposite yarn-based strain sensor
  93. Review on nanocomposites based on aerospace applications
  94. Overview of nanocellulose as additives in paper processing and paper products
  95. The frontiers of functionalized graphene-based nanocomposites as chemical sensors
  96. Material advancement in tissue-engineered nerve conduit
  97. Carbon nanostructure-based superhydrophobic surfaces and coatings
  98. Functionalized graphene-based nanocomposites for smart optoelectronic applications
  99. Interfacial technology for enhancement in steel fiber reinforced cementitious composite from nano to macroscale
  100. Metal nanoparticles and biomaterials: The multipronged approach for potential diabetic wound therapy
  101. Review on resistive switching mechanisms of bio-organic thin film for non-volatile memory application
  102. Nanotechnology-enabled biomedical engineering: Current trends, future scopes, and perspectives
  103. Research progress on key problems of nanomaterials-modified geopolymer concrete
  104. Smart stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for the cancer therapy – nanomedicine
  105. An overview of methods for production and detection of silver nanoparticles, with emphasis on their fate and toxicological effects on human, soil, and aquatic environment
  106. Effects of chemical modification and nanotechnology on wood properties
  107. Mechanisms, influencing factors, and applications of electrohydrodynamic jet printing
  108. Application of antiviral materials in textiles: A review
  109. Phase transformation and strengthening mechanisms of nanostructured high-entropy alloys
  110. Research progress on individual effect of graphene oxide in cement-based materials and its synergistic effect with other nanomaterials
  111. Catalytic defense against fungal pathogens using nanozymes
  112. A mini-review of three-dimensional network topological structure nanocomposites: Preparation and mechanical properties
  113. Mechanical properties and structural health monitoring performance of carbon nanotube-modified FRP composites: A review
  114. Nano-scale delivery: A comprehensive review of nano-structured devices, preparative techniques, site-specificity designs, biomedical applications, commercial products, and references to safety, cellular uptake, and organ toxicity
  115. Effects of alloying, heat treatment and nanoreinforcement on mechanical properties and damping performances of Cu–Al-based alloys: A review
  116. Recent progress in the synthesis and applications of vertically aligned carbon nanotube materials
  117. Thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity of mono and hybrid organic- and synthetic-based nanofluids: A critical review
  118. Recent advances in waste-recycled nanomaterials for biomedical applications: Waste-to-wealth
  119. Layup sequence and interfacial bonding of additively manufactured polymeric composite: A brief review
  120. Quantum dots synthetization and future prospect applications
  121. Approved and marketed nanoparticles for disease targeting and applications in COVID-19
  122. Strategies for improving rechargeable lithium-ion batteries: From active materials to CO2 emissions
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